Life Skills in Compulsory Education: A Systematic Scoping Review

Abstract

The significance of life skills within educational settings has grown; however, there remains a gap regarding a comprehensive understanding of the overarching concept. This systematic scoping review addresses that need, with the aim to identify and map empirical research published between 2013 and 2023 focused on life skills in compulsory education (grade 1–10). In addition to mapping the studies according to their characteristics, how life skills are defined is also examined, with a specific focus on collectivistic and individualistic perspectives. Through a rigorous search process, 50 studies were identified. The studies are mainly concerned with evaluating the efficacy of life skills programs or interventions for adolescents. They define life skills by both the type of skill and what it achieves. Key trends include an emphasis on an individualistic understanding of the term, lacking collectivistic perspectives. The implications focus on life skills education connected to lifelong learning, Bildung, and holistic growth from a collectivistic perspective, suggesting that future research could include life skills education for younger children for more sustainable effects favorable for desired societal outcomes.

1. Introduction

Life skills have become increasingly important to include in education as the world is constantly changing and children and adolescents must prepare for the challenges of the 21st century [1]. There are different conceptions about what life skills encompass, and the phenomenon has been studied through various approaches on an international scale. What life skills education consists of and how the concept of life skills is defined, understood, and implemented in school contexts varies around the world. Life skills have been defined by the World Health Organization (WHO) as “abilities for adaptive and positive behavior, that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life” [2] (p. 1), with the following set of 10 core skills: decision making, problem solving, creative and critical thinking, effective communication, interpersonal relationship skills, self-awareness, empathy, and coping with emotions and stress. This understanding emphasizes the skills needed for an individual to cope with life and to cope in society. UNICEF also emphasizes skills, but includes attitudes as well in their definition, as follows: “a set of abilities, attitudes and socio-emotional competencies that enable individuals to learn, make informed decisions and exercise rights to lead a healthy and productive life and subsequently become agents of change” [3] (p. 7). The term has various synonyms, such as transferable skills, 21st century skills, soft skills, and socio-emotional skills [4], and it has been linked to well-being, underlining the promotion of health and well-being in psychological, cognitive, physical, social, and emotional aspects [5].

With the Norwegian context as a starting point, the aim of this study is to identify and map international empirical research on life skills within compulsory education according to characteristics and how the life skills concept is defined, with a specific focus on collectivism and individualistic perspectives.

1.1. Life Skills as a Complex Concept

Life skills assist children and adolescents in adapting to personal, social, and practical challenges [4]. Children and adolescents who struggle to manage the demands of everyday life are at risk of developing personal, cognitive, and social challenges and a lower quality of life as a result of these deficits [6]. These challenges encompass a range of difficulties that can impact various aspects of their lives, for example, issues with self-esteem, decision making, and communication. Internationally, life skills education often focuses on school-based universal prevention programs, specifically for adolescents, targeting high-risk behaviors such as tobacco, alcohol, and drug usage [7]. These programs are developed specifically for adolescents, as this age group is going through major biological, psychological, and social changes, which makes them prone to developing high-risk behavior [8]. However, strengthening life skills in early years is crucial to foster active and responsible citizens [9], and it might contribute to personal, social, and academic success. The literature emphasizes the significance of the earlier years of childhood in fostering life skills [8], and prevention research suggests targeting primary school students, as well as adolescents, to ensure stronger and more durable prevention effects [10].

Life skills research related to health promotion has internationally targeted specific health-compromising behaviors in order to develop effective interventions, and “broad-based lifestyle change efforts” have been less successful, perhaps in an attempt to change too many problem behaviors at the same time [11]. Life skills as a health promotion strategy in education has received more attention in recent years [8]. For example, Norway introduced ‘health and life skills’ as a mandatory and interdisciplinary topic in primary and secondary education in 2020, aiming towards stimulating all students to make good life decisions in everyday life and prepare them for life in the future, in accordance with a holistic perspective and lifelong learning [12]. The topic was implemented in the core curriculum because of rising societal challenges, such as mental health issues, among children and adolescents [13]. However, the topic covers more than just mental health, with factors such as physical health, lifestyle habits, sexuality and gender, drug abuse, media use and consumption, and personal economy being explicitly included in the curriculum [12].

Life skills are described in the Norwegian core curriculum as follows: “the ability to understand and influence factors that are important for mastering one’s own life” [12] (p. 15). Notably, the topic has received criticism in terms of its vague description [14]. There is limited empirical research available on the topic in a Norwegian context, probably due to the more recent implementation in the curriculum. However, one Norwegian study found that teachers perceive the life skills term as vague and unclear, and that they consider life skills education to be about Bildung and fostering active citizens of the future [15].

In Norway, the topic is meant to be implemented in and across different subjects [12], and the interdisciplinary perspective highlights the holistic approach to education compliant with the concept of Bildung [16]. This concept revolves around a process of knowledge acquisition that transforms both the individual and the surrounding society, fostering the capacity to evolve as an autonomous citizen of society, in other words, self-determination [17]. Bildung centers on developing understanding, attitudes, and values within oneself and in interaction with others, in the same way as life skills, as a topic in school [18,19].

1.2. Life Skills as an Individual and Social Phenomenon

The topic of life skills in the Norwegian curriculum and the consequences of implementing it have been questioned. Among other things, the topic has received criticism for being too individualistically oriented, due to its focus on strengthening resources of individuals to be able to cope with everyday life in a greater manner [20]. This—which by the most influential critics is called therapeutic education [21]—makes students become accountable for their own learning, and the responsibility is put on the individual to deal with challenges of life on their own [22,23], leading to the psychologization of society, also known as therapeutic culture [24].

While this critique emphasizes individual responsibility, there is also a strong argument for viewing life skills education as inherently social. Life skills education can help students to manage their lives better, as well as support others in dealing with challenges. In light of Bandura’s theory on human agency [25], which views individuals as active agents who influence their own behavior and environments, life skills can empower students to maximize their potential in a way that favors both themselves and society, in line with collectivistic perspectives [26]. Furthermore, sociocultural learning theory highlights that students learn in interactions with others [20]. Vygotsky’s theory on the zone of proximal development [27] suggests that students further develop their potential for learning with the support from the “more competent other”. This underscores the role of educators and peers in fostering the development of life skills. A significant component of life skills education is social and emotional learning, as relationships, belonging, and community participation are vital for an individual’s health and well-being [28]. Together, these perspectives highlight both the potential limitations and the broader benefits of life skills education, pointing to the importance of balancing individual empowerment with collective support.

1.3. Objectives

Previous reviews highlight that life skills is a complex concept [7,29]. Although different life skills programs aiming at specific outcomes have been studied internationally, little is known about the overarching understanding of life skills as a concept and how it is defined [1]; moreover, a clarification of this complex concept is, therefore, called for, both in an international and Norwegian context. Research on a topic without a clear definition might hinder the potential for future research to fully utilize the existing knowledge, which in turn could compromise scientific knowledge development [30]. Accordingly, a scoping review approach is selected to systematically identify and map what characterizes the empirical research on life skills in compulsory education (compulsory education refers to primary and lower secondary education (grade 1–10) in this review, according to OECD [31]) and how it is defined in educational research. Furthermore, the current study also aims to examine which perspectives of collectivism and individualism are included in the definitions of life skills. To this end, the following research questions are addressed:

• What characterizes the empirical research on life skills in compulsory education?
  • What are the purposes, explicit focus areas, methods, designs, and samples of the included studies?
• How are life skills defined in educational research?
  • What specific definitions of life skills are used in educational research?
  • Which perspectives of collectivism and individualism are visible in the definitions of life skills?

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Design and Methodological Approach

A scoping review is a form of evidence synthesis that involves systematic exploration of the scope and character of existing research related to a specific subject or field [32]. The aim of such an approach is to systematically identify, map, and describe research around a topic with broad research questions. This differs from other types of systematic review, which tend to contain narrower, more specific, and closed research questions [33]. Similar to other types of systematic review, scoping reviews should be transparent and replicable [34].

This systematic scoping review is reported in accordance with the updated guidelines of Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses for scoping reviews [35,36]. A protocol was created before this review as guidance throughout the process, but it was not officially registered. In light of the scoping review framework by Arksey and O’Malley [37], we (1) defined the research questions, (2) identified relevant studies, (3) selected eligible studies, (4) charted the data, and (5) collated, summarized, and reported the results.

2.2. Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria

The inclusion and exclusion criteria are described through the population, concept, and context (PCC) framework [36] and specified in accordance with the research questions, with the intention of identifying all relevant aspects of the research literature we sought to identify. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are presented in

Table 1. Inclusion and exclusion criteria.

	Inclusion Criteria	Exclusion Criteria
Population	Students aged 5–16.	Children younger than 5 years old and students older than 16 years old.
	Teachers teaching students between the ages of 5 and 16.	School staff members other than teachers or external professionals.
Main concept: Life skills	Life skills within the areas of health, lifestyle, morals and values, identity, and social and emotional learning.	Life skills as basic skills.
		Life skills with a main focus on diseases, disorders, reproductive health, sports, substance use, and violence.
Other concepts: Inclusion Diversity	Inclusion in terms of high-quality educational opportunity for everyone.	Inclusion in terms of children with special needs.
	Diversity related to students’ backgrounds, values, interests, and aims.	Diversity in terms of a main focus on vulnerable groups (e.g., at-risk students, institutionalized children, and minority groups).
Context	Compulsory education setting.	Non-compulsory education setting, such as early childhood education, upper secondary education, and higher education, outside of an education setting.
Design of study	Empirical studies.	Non-empirical studies, such as theoretical or conceptual papers without data.
Language	English and Norwegian.	Languages other than English and Norwegian.
Publication year	2013–2023.	Publication date before 2013 and after 2023.
Publication type	Scientific peer-reviewed articles.	Publication types other than scientific peer-reviewed articles.

.

2.2.1. Population

Studies eligible for inclusion comprise students between the ages of 5 and 16 and/or teachers teaching students between the ages of 5 and 16. Studies with a sample of children both within and outside of the age limit (e.g., 15–17 years old) were included. There are several reviews concentrated on life skills for adolescents [6,7], whereas this review covers both children and adolescents as a population. Studies centered around school staff beyond teachers were excluded. However, studies with a sample of both teachers and other roles were included.

2.2.2. Concept

The primary concept considered in the search is related to life skills based on the recent implementation of the topic in Norwegian schools. The included studies within the concept of life skills are associated with health, lifestyle, morals and values, identity, and social and emotional learning, similar to the description of the interdisciplinary topic in the Norwegian curriculum for primary and secondary education [12].

The initial literature scoping searches show that research on life skills education frequently targets students with special needs [38], thus including only a specific group of students and applying a deficit perspective. A scoping review on life skills development and transfer points out that majority of the life skills literature in general has a focus on vulnerable groups [39]. To obtain an overview of the research literature on life skills, focusing on the broad understanding of inclusion, meaning high-quality educational opportunities for the entire student population [40], this study will include populations other than vulnerable populations and review the life skills literature as a social phenomenon. Therefore, studies related to life skills as a concept revolving around an understanding of life skills as basic everyday tasks that individuals (without disabilities) can independently perform were excluded. In addition, studies primarily focused on diseases, disorders, reproductive health, sports, substance use, and violence were excluded. Studies utilizing only synonym terms of ‘life skills’ were also excluded, due to limited resources.

Moreover, we applied specific criteria related to the concepts of inclusion and diversity in a life skills education setting in order to capture studies about life skills education focusing on social or collectivistic perspectives. Hence, the included studies related to the concept of inclusion were rooted in the theory of inclusive pedagogy, emphasizing high-quality educational opportunities for everyone, and not focused around specific groups that are vulnerable or students’ individual special needs [40]. Conversely, the excluded studies were centered on students with special needs. As for the concept of diversity, the included studies were linked to a broad spectrum of students, such as students with diverse backgrounds, values, interests, and aims [41], while the excluded studies were those concentrating mainly on vulnerable or marginalized groups.

2.2.3. Context

This review included studies reported from around the world, within the context of compulsory education. Consequently, studies from a non-compulsory education context, such as early childhood education, upper secondary education, higher education, family, community and leisure activities, sports, etc., were excluded. The inclusion criterion for publication year was set between 2013 and 2023. This year limitation was based on the recent implementation of life skills as a topic in the Norwegian curriculum for primary and secondary education. In this way, the newest and most relevant research would be identified.

2.2.4. Types of Evidence Sources

The inclusion criteria involved empirical studies employing quantitative, qualitative, or mixed-method designs. Studies that were considered theoretical contributions that did not include data were, therefore, excluded. In order to obtain the most comprehensive picture of the active research environments on the topic of life skills, systematic reviews that met the inclusion criteria were also included, although this is not necessarily standard in a scoping review. For both quality assurance and resource optimization reasons, the publication type was restricted to scientific peer-reviewed articles. The included studies were limited to those available in English and Norwegian. This was based on the language skills of the author group.

2.3. Information Sources and Search Strategy

Systematic literature searches for Norwegian and English peer-reviewed articles were conducted in June–July 2023, and in December 2023 to consider new publications. There were two main search strategies in this review, one in English and one in Norwegian. The search strategy consisted of multiple steps aimed at identifying articles following the inclusion criteria. Firstly, pilot searches were conducted in electronic databases to obtain an overlook of the current evidence base. The pilot English search resulted in relevant key terms from the titles and abstracts of relevant articles that met the inclusion criteria of the current study. The key terms helped to define the specific search string, and it was developed in collaboration with the project team and experts in systematic review searching. Furthermore, it was peer reviewed by Norwegian and international experts on the research topic.

Following the completion of the search string, searches were carried out across six international databases, both interdisciplinary and discipline-specific, as follows: Academic Search Premier, ERIC, PsycINFO (OVID), Scopus, SocINDEX, and Web of Science; and three Norwegian databases: Idunn, NORA, and Oria. The various databases were chosen to cover relevant disciplines linked to the research topic, like education, sociology, and psychology. The English search consisted of two categories of search terms covering ‘life skills’ and ‘education’ merged by the Boolean operator ‘AND’. The search strategy was adapted to the syntax and subject headings of the selected databases. The titles, abstracts, and keywords were searched using the following search string for the English search: TITLE-ABS-KEY (“life skill*” or “life-skill*”) AND (school* OR educat* OR class* OR teach* OR learn* OR student* OR pupil*). Additional filters (e.g., limited to peer-reviewed articles AND English AND >2013) were also applied in accordance with the inclusion and exclusion criteria. Due to the limited research available in the Norwegian search, this search string consisted only of the term “livsmestring” (life skills in Norwegian).

2.4. Data Management and Study Selection Process

The results of the literature searches were imported into EPPI-Reviewer Web v.6, and duplicates were removed using the automatic duplicate removal function. A test screening among three reviewers was carried out based on the agreed-upon inclusion and exclusion criteria to ensure consistency and a common understanding of the eligibility criteria across reviewers.

The formal screening process started by the three reviewers screening all identified studies based on the title and abstract using double-blind screening. Titles and abstracts that aligned with the inclusion criteria were included for full-text screening. The reviewers discussed and reconciled any disagreements before continuing to full-text screening. To enhance consistency among the reviewers, a test screening of the full text was conducted before full-text reports were screened by independent double-blind screening according to the inclusion criteria. The reasons for excluding studies in both screening phases were documented (Figure 1).

To ensure literature saturation, the screening of studies was supplemented by citation chasing in a few selected studies, meaning an investigation of (1) possible relevant studies that these articles have cited (backward searching) and (2) possible relevant studies that cited the selected studies (forward searching). In addition, journals identified by experts on the research topic were hand-searched to ensure more complete coverage of the topic [42]. Lastly, the list of included studies was sent to two selected experts in the field for peer review and suggestion of additional relevant studies that had been missed by the search strategy.

2.5. Data Extraction and Analysis

In order to answer research question 1, two authors (L.H. and A.G.) extracted information from each study using a custom-made data extraction scheme administered through the EPPI framework. The data extraction scheme was designed with the main aim to acquire a thorough understanding of what characterizes the existing empirical research on life skills in compulsory education. Firstly, the data extraction form was predefined. Suitable codes were created inductively based on the observed characteristics of the included studies after screening the full texts. Pilot coding was conducted on 10 percent of the studies (n = 5) by all three authors. This served to refine the data extraction scheme and calibrate the understanding of the codes. Any disagreements were discussed and resolved before continuing the data extraction from the remaining studies, also through double-blind coding. The extracted data included (1) administrative details (e.g., publication year, language, and country), (2) study details (e.g., research method, study design, and data collection method), (3) target group characteristics (e.g., school grade, age, and gender), and (4) topic and study focus. Following the extraction of data, one reviewer confirmed another reviewer’s coding, and together they organized the data to categorize and provide an overview of the existing research, as well as classify descriptive themes from the definitions used in the identified literature. Throughout this process, the reviewers discussed the themes until consensus was reached. The data were presented through graphical formats using Excel. Additionally, an interactive evidence gap map (EGM) was developed through the EPPI-Reviewer framework. This EGM presents the data extracted from the 50 included studies in a structured, interactive, and freely available web interface, which is available in Appendix A.

To answer research question 2, we extracted and compiled all items and indicators to conduct an inductive thematic analysis of the definitions of life skills. The process was conducted in accordance with Braun and Clarke’s [43] guidelines for thematic analysis. Initially, it was coded whether the study provided a definition of life skills or not. Furthermore, the studies that provided a definition were exported to the analysis software NVivo v.14 to facilitate the thematic analysis. The first step in the thematic analysis involved reading through the definitions several times and recording ideas. Initial codes were generated in the second step, for which the codes were gathered into potential themes in the third step. The initial synthesis of extracted data was carried out by one author (L.H.), and another author (H.F.) subsequently reviewed the synthesis in the fourth step of the analysis. Moreover, the definitions were organized into specific themes that represent the entire data set in the fifth step. Lastly, the themes were finalized and described in the sixth step.

3. Results

3.1. Study Selection and Characteristics

The process of identification, screening, and inclusion of the studies is presented in Figure 1. The systematic literature searches produced 8289 articles among nine databases. Additionally, 15 possibly relevant articles were identified through hand searches. A total of 2916 articles were duplicates and were, therefore, removed, which left a total of 5388 articles remaining for independent screening of the title and abstract. After the initial review, 5214 papers were eliminated based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria. A substantial quantity of studies was excluded due to having a main emphasis on vulnerable groups and examining how life skills transfer to sport or the role of sport in developing life skills. After exclusion, 174 papers were left for full-text screening. Following careful examination, 124 studies were excluded, and a total of 50 studies were finally included in this systematic scoping review. These originated from India (n = 11), Iran (n = 6), Norway (n = 4), Turkey (n = 4), Italy (n = 3), and other countries in Asia, Africa, and Europe. There was a fluctuating, but overall steady, increase in yearly publication frequency during the period, and notably more than half of the papers were published after 2020 (n = 26). The Supplementary Material presents a summarized overview of some of the characteristics of the included studies and coding explanations. The EGM available in Appendix A provides a more comprehensive map of the study characteristics coded in this review.

3.1.1. Study Purposes and Explicit Focus Areas

The largest proportion of included studies was conducted with the overall purpose to assess efficacy (“what works”) (n = 24). All of these studies were concerned with programs, interventions, or teaching methods, with a substantial focus on assessing the effectiveness of specific approaches to teaching life skills. An example is a study by McMullen and McMullen [44], who evaluated the effectiveness of a teacher-led life skills intervention in terms of, e.g., increased self-efficacy and encouraging prosocial behavior in students in Uganda. Several of the other studies were descriptive, either in a way of describing phenomena (n = 18) or by exploring the relationships between various aspects related to life skills (n = 4).

Since the studies approached and framed the topic of life skills education from different perspectives, the explicit focus areas of the 50 included studies were categorized. Five categories were inductively created based on the data material (see Supplementary Materials). The categories were not mutually exclusive. Most of the studies focused on a program or an intervention (n = 26) (Figure 2). Examples of the programs include WHO’s life skills education program (n = 6), social-emotional learning programs (n = 6), and Botvin’s life skills training program (n = 2). The programs or interventions measured, e.g., mental health (n = 18), social and emotional skills (n = 16), and interpersonal skills (n = 10). The second most dominant category of explicit focus areas in the studies was “Mental health” (n = 15). The third most prominent category, “LS (Life Skills) in a specific subject,” included 10 studies, in which science (n = 4) and language (n = 3) were the most common subjects discussed in relation to life skills. For instance, Ormanci et al. [45] analyzed the acquisition of life skills in a science teaching program. The category “SEL (Social and Emotional Learning)” included eight studies on social and emotional learning related to life skills education. In the studies coded as “General LSE (Life Skills Education)” (n = 7), life skills were not related to a specific program/intervention, subject, or topic. An example is Mahanta et al. [46], who investigated the importance of life skills education among adolescents. Some studies were coded to have more than one focus area.

3.1.2. Methods Used in the Studies

Most of the research methods used in the studies were quantitative (n = 20), however, studies using a qualitative approach (n = 15) were also prominent. Mixed methods were used in 10 of the studies. A total of 5 of the 50 included studies were categorized as a review, of which the first was published in 2019. The publication of quantitative studies peaked in 2018, while qualitative studies had an increase until 2020, and have since remained the most frequent research method.

Figure 3 provides an overview of the data collection methods used in the studies. Several of the studies used more than one data collection method. Overall, the most prominent data collection method was a questionnaire/survey. This category, used by 64% of the studies, included questionnaires, surveys, and scales where the participants answered questions and/or ranked statements, typically as a pre- and/or post-test in the study. All quantitative studies used questionnaire/survey as data collection method.

3.1.3. Study Designs

The design most used in the 50 included studies was a view study (Figure 4). This type of study design investigates the attitudes, perceptions, or opinions of a population, most often by qualitative research methods employing interview or survey data, and with the purpose of describing a phenomenon. An example of a study in this category is by Aldenmyr [47], who aimed to analyze teachers’ narratives about the challenge of teaching life skills. Several of the other studies had an experimental design (41%), and these studies were predominantly concerned with the evaluation of programs related to life skills education.

In the process of coding, it became apparent that not all study design categories were mutually exclusive. As a result of this, the same study could in some cases be assigned to more than one study design category. One such study was by Güllühan [48], who investigated how a program implemented in a life skills course influenced social problem solving skills among third-grade students in Turkey. The study was both a document study, one group pre- and post-test, and a case study.

3.1.4. The Study Subjects

The subjects investigated were students (n = 37), mostly between the ages of 12 and 16 (

Table 2. Age of subjects in the included studies.

Age (Years)	6	7	8	9	10	11	12	13	14	15	16	>16
Number of studies	2	3	4	7	9	12	18	19	22	23	15	11

), and/or teachers (n = 17). Most of the studies covered between 1 and 4 grades or the ages covered by our inclusion criteria, while a few studies covered as many as 8–11 grades or ages. Thirty-two studies included both female and male subjects, while five studies targeted females only and one study centered on males only, meanwhile seven studies did not specify gender. Furthermore, only one study addressed a specific demographic group, namely rural adolescents in the top 25th percentile of intelligence [49].

3.2. Thematic Analysis of Definitions of Life Skills

In relation to research question 2 (“How are life skills defined in educational research?”), 32 studies provided a definition and were included in the thematic analysis. The studies that provided a definition of life skills used a variety of definitions (

Table 3. Definitions of life skills in the included studies.

Definitions (n = 32)	Examples
WHO definition (n = 14)	“Life skills are abilities for adaptive and positive behavior, that enable individuals to deal effectively with the demands and challenges of everyday life.” [2] (p. 1)
Variations of WHO definition (n = 5)	“Life skills are the ones that are among the 21st-century skills and help us cope with daily life problems effectively.” [50] (p. 2)
UNICEF (n = 3)	“Life skills refer to a large group of psycho-social and inter-personal skills that can help people make informed decisions, communicate effectively and develop coping and self-management skills that may help them lead a healthy and productive life.” [51] (p. 1426)
Other sources (n = 4)	“Life skills are all of the vital skills that help people to deal with the difficulties that faced in their life and guide them in solving problems.” [45] (p. 71)
Own definition (n = 6)	“Life skills are essentially those abilities that help to promote mental well-being and competence in people as they face the realities of life.” [52] (p. 280)

).

The most dominant definition used in the studies was WHO’s definition (n = 14). Furthermore, 18 other definitions were identified. These studies used either variations of WHO’s definition but included more aspects, UNICEF’s definition, other references, or their own definition. All 18 definitions were analyzed according to two different aspects: the type of skill and its outcome. Seven sub-themes were identified, according to the two main categories. Social, mental, behavioral, and emotional skills were the types of skills mentioned when defining what types of skills are included within the life skills term. Most of the definitions described life skills as social (n = 10) or mental (n = 9) skills. The social skills were outlined as social, psychosocial, or interpersonal skills, meanwhile the mental skills were described either by using the terms mental, psychological, or cognitive. The definitions containing behavioral skills (n = 3) described life skills as an ability applied for behaving a certain way. Furthermore, two of the definitions explained life skills as a type of emotional skill.

Dealing with everyday life and its challenges, healthy development, and productivity were the types of outcomes mentioned when defining what life skills can result in. Over 70% of the definitions (n = 13) stated that life skills help individuals to cope with requirements and issues in everyday life, conforming to WHO’s definition. Nine of the definitions stated that life skills contribute to well-being and healthy development. Furthermore, productivity was mentioned as an outcome of life skills in five definitions, either in terms of life skills leading to a productive life (n = 4) or productive involvement in the community (n = 1).

Two definitions included neither a type of skill nor an outcome and had very vague descriptions of life skills. Gim [53] (p. 5) defined life skills as “skills that would be useful at any time in an individual’s life,” The other broad definition was found in the only Norwegian study that provided a definition of life skills, as follows: “Life skills, as expressed in the curriculum, is about being able to understand and being able to influence factors that are important for mastering one’s own life’” [54] (p. 124, author’s translation).

The findings related to research question 2b (“Which perspectives of collectivism and individualism are visible in the definitions of life skills?”) showed minimal indications of collectivistic aspects. The definitions were coded as having either an individualistic or collectivistic focus, or both. Notably, only two of the definitions explicitly mentioned a collectivistic focus. Nasheeda et al. [6] (p. 362) mentioned being an active participant in the community, as follows: “Life skills has been identified as an essential resource for developing psychosocial, emotional, cognitive, behavioral and resilience skills to negotiate every day challenges and productive involvement in the community”. However, Kirchhoff and Keller [8] (p. 1) mentioned both the individualistic and collectivistic perspectives, as follows: “Life skills (…) are assumed to help students to cope with these demands on their own and to make an important contribution to well-being and healthy development for themselves and others”. Conversely, an example of an individualistic understanding of life skills is the following definition: “Life skills (…) are supposed to help students deal with these demands independently and contribute to their overall health and well-being.” [55] (p. 2).

4. Discussion

4.1. Overview of Main Findings

This systematic scoping review aimed to map the body of empirical studies published in the past decade concerning life skills in compulsory education and investigate the characteristics and how the concept is defined in educational research. Following an extensive literature search of peer-reviewed articles across nine databases, we identified 50 studies that met the inclusion criteria. Related to the characteristics of the studies, the research was predominantly conducted in Asia. Furthermore, most of the studies focused on programs or interventions with the purpose of assessing the efficacy of teaching methods for life skills education. The overview of the included empirical research unveiled a prevalence of quantitative studies and a view study design, with a sample of teachers and/or students, mainly adolescents (aged 12–16).

The included studies reveal that life skills are mostly defined by WHO, variations of WHO’s definition, UNICEF, other sources, or own definitions. Nonetheless, the diverse definitions of life skills offer a broad spectrum for exploration. Despite this great diversity, the central focus remains on understanding life skills from an individualistic perspective, considering minimal aspects of collectivism or social relations. The findings uncover overarching trends and identify notable gaps in the research. Consequently, critical reflections are discussed in this segment, highlighting prevalent areas that require further exploration. Subsequent to these reflections, this review addresses its limitations and concludes with final remarks.

4.2. Characteristics of the Studies

4.2.1. Contextual Differences

The 50 studies in this systematic scoping review were conducted in 24 countries across three continents. This geographical spread highlights the acknowledgement of life skills as a global phenomenon. Nevertheless, the vast majority of the included studies were conducted in Asia. In particular, the highest proportion of studies (22%) was conducted in India. Poverty and inequality are major issues in India, and fostering life skills among children and adolescents can be crucial to break this cycle for the future. In fact, UNICEF [3] has developed a comprehensive life skills framework for India targeted at adolescents with the purpose to provide knowledge about the competencies needed to be responsible citizens in society. Several of the included studies from these vulnerable areas focus on evaluating the effectiveness of life skills training for adolescents [46,56,57]. There might be reasons to question the relevance of these studies for developed countries, where the context behind the implementation of life skills in the curriculum was mainly related to issues other than poverty and inequality. Notably, there is no research from North and South America included in this systematic scoping review. This can be explained by a large proportion of the studies being excluded due to our exclusion criteria regarding life skills with a main focus on sports, often originating from this part of the world.

4.2.2. Link between the Studies’ Focus Area, Purpose, and Methods

We observed strong links between the studies’ explicit focus area, purpose, research method, and data collection method. Utilizing programs or interventions to teach life skills remains the main focus of the included studies. Consequently, evaluating the effect of these teaching methods related to life skills emerged as the prevailing purpose among the studies. This focus on life skills programs in research may indicate that evidence-based practice is prioritized to determine the impact on student development and for policymakers and educators to make informed decisions about which interventions should be implement based on the empirical evidence of their efficacy [6]. In contrast to research on life skills assessing the efficacy of programs or interventions, all of the Norwegian studies applied qualitative research methods with the purpose of describing phenomena. This may be explained by the quite recent implementation of life skills in the curriculum and, therefore, a lack of experimental research on evidence-based practice.

Furthermore, the findings reveal that quantitative methods are most prominent in the studies. In the included articles, this research method is typically used to measure variables such as students’ self-perceived psychological well-being before and after life skills training [49]. Quantitative methods facilitate rigorous statistical analysis in order to be able to identify patterns, trends, and associations between variables [58]. It can be challenging to objectively and reliably measure certain life skills such as communication, empathy, and interpersonal relationships skills [59]. This might explain why many of the studies base their results on self-evaluation of specific life skills before and after the implementation of a life skills program. The most frequently employed method for data collection was also, unsurprisingly, a questionnaire/survey, enabling standardization and facilitating comparable results.

Conversely, the view study design was the most used research design, employing mostly qualitative methods. This research design allows for a deeper insight into the attitudes, perceptions, or opinions within a population, which can be advantageous in understanding the complex phenomenon of life skills. Deeper insights are essential in understanding the contextual factors of the topic, as this knowledge can influence future interventions, programs, and policies in order to better meet the specific needs and preferences of diverse stakeholders.

4.2.3. The Role of Age in Life Skills Education

Moreover, the results indicate that research on life skills primarily centers around adolescents aged 12–16. As this age group goes through a critical developmental stage marked by significant physical, cognitive, emotional, and social changes, they are receptive to learning and acquiring essential life skills that support their transition into adulthood [60]. The previous literature highlights adolescents as being more prone to developing high-risk behaviors [8], explaining the international focus on risk prevention interventions in life skills education. While adolescents are a primary focus of the life skills research identified in this systematic scoping review, it is also essential to recognize the importance of starting life skills education at earlier stages in order to build foundational skills and behaviors that can be further developed and reinforced during adolescence. Life skills involve more than health promotion and risk prevention, including topics such as interpersonal skills, problem solving, decision making, and emotional well-being. Therefore, it seems crucial to include life skills also in primary education curricula to facilitate personal, social, and academic success both for children and adolescents, yielding sustainable effects favorable for desired societal outcomes.

4.3. Definitions of Life Skills

4.3.1. Lack of Definitions

The findings of this systematic scoping review show that not all of the included studies defined the concept of life skills. Notably, many studies that lacked a definition of life skills utilized qualitative methodology and were conducted with a view study design with the purpose of describing phenomena. In line with the following UNICEF statement [9] (p. 8): “the term ‘life skills’ has gained currency in the fields of health, education and social policy, yet it remains without a full and widely accepted definition,” Tanious et al. [39] reported in their study that the majority of the reviewed literature does not provide a definition of life skills and state that the term, in general, lacks a clear definition within the scientific literature. On the other hand, Darlington-Bernard et al. [29] conclude that it is not possible to achieve consensus on a conceptual definition of life skills, due to the extensive range of terms used to define life skills across various research fields that have diverse perspectives, purposes, and approaches. Moreover, one can argue that the concept of life skills is context dependent, as the skills that are needed in life differ based on the living conditions and other factors in a specific country [2]. Accordingly, UNICEF [9] argue that it is difficult to establish which skills are needed in life and which are not, meaning that cultures, as well as individuals, are diverse and have different preconditions and needs. Nevertheless, the findings from the current systematic scoping review reveal that research on life skills uses various definitions, but the definitions include similar elements although they originate from diverse geographical regions worldwide.

4.3.2. Diverse, but Similar Definitions

As outlined in the results section, life skills are most often defined according to two aspects: the type of skill and its outcome. The definition by WHO [2] was commonly used, highlighting adaptive and positive behavior as a strategy to solve everyday life challenges. This definition suggests that life skills enable individuals to effectively adjust and respond to various situations and circumstances that they encounter in daily life, implying that life skills go beyond specific extraordinary situations and are relevant and applicable to the everyday challenges that individuals encounter in their daily lives. This also proposes that life skills include practical abilities with real-world applications, representing a comprehensive set of abilities that collectively contribute to a person’s overall competence. In essence, the WHO definition of life skills illuminates the adaptive, positive, and practical aspects, with an emphasis on empowering individuals to navigate the complexities of everyday life.

Some of the other definitions specifically noted certain types of skills, and the most frequently mentioned skills were social and mental skills. The importance of these skills as a part of life skills can be reflected by the synonyms being used to describe life skills, such as socio-emotional skills and psychosocial skills, both in the previous literature [2,4], as evident in some of the definitions of the included studies [6,8,51,55,61,62]. Furthermore, several definitions mentioned a core set of life skills according to WHO’s framework [2], as follows: decision making and effective communication were mentioned most frequently, followed by coping with emotions and stress, interpersonal relationship skills, and problem solving. Most of these skills can be categorized under social or mental skills, in line with the thematic analysis in this systematic scoping review. In light of the WHO framework [2], creative and critical thinking, self-awareness, and empathy were not mentioned explicitly in the definitions at all. Ultimately, the definitions are somewhat diverse, although they consist of many similar elements that are applicable across different contexts.

4.3.3. Broad-Based Approach

The Norwegian term for life skills is “livsmestring”, which directly translates to life mastery. This term highlights life skills as a competence that is needed to master life. There was only one Norwegian definition identified in the included studies, and it was categorized as vague, similar to empirical evidence [15], and to the critique that the topic has received [14]. The definition mentioned that life skills are related to “factors” that are of significance in the mastery of one’s own life [12]. In some way, these unidentified “factors” can be seen in light of the international definitions included in this systematic scoping review. Hence, the categories identified in the thematic analysis (social, mental, behavioral, and emotional skills) can, to a high degree, be factors that are important for mastering life.

Even so, it is perhaps a necessity to be cautious when defining life skills in the Norwegian context, because the term holds a more broad-based approach in contrast to the international definitions that mention certain types of skills, often in relation to studies that target specific issues, such as health-comprising behaviors [11]. At the same time, life skills as a topic in school in Norway also involves dealing with challenges, coping with stress and emotions, developing personal competencies and resources, and achieving a sense of well-being and balance in life [12], similar to the identified international definitions. The essence of the Norwegian term is, nevertheless, similar to the international definitions, linking life skills to the ability to navigate through life’s different situations and experiences in a constructive manner.

4.3.4. A Call for a Clear and Updated Definition

It is evident that a clear definition of life skills both within and across different national contexts is needed in order to differentiate borderline terms. The necessity of establishing a common definition is significant for the sake of research and the growth of scientific knowledge, but also for policymakers and practitioners who need a clear concept to follow for the purpose of implementation. Not only is a clear definition of the concept of life skills needed, but there is also a call for a more updated definition [39]. The definition from WHO is almost 30 years old, and one can ask whether all aspects of the definition are still relevant in today’s societies and whether there are new challenges that the definition does not cover that should be addressed.

Life skills have been described as a synonym for 21st century skills [4], among other terms. However, the terms appear to have been used interchangeably, considering that life skills refer to competencies of life in general, and 21st century skills underline abilities that are needed in the modern world, placing an emphasis on rapid development in terms of technology and globalization. As such, life skills that are needed in the 21st century, and establishing an updated definition, could be of utmost importance in future directions of research.

4.3.5. Individualistic Perspectives

Furthermore, this review also aimed to examine which perspectives of collectivism and individualism are visible in the definitions of life skills. The findings reveal that a majority of the definitions are individualistically oriented. The emphasis on empowering individuals in the WHO definition indicates that the focus of life skills is on individuals acquiring and applying these skills to enhance their capacity to manage various aspects of life. With its individualistic perspective, the definition underscores how life skills can promote personal empowerment. As to WHO’s definition being the most prevalent in life skills research, this contributes to the discourse and understanding of life skills as an individual phenomenon.

As presented in the results section, the definition by Shinde et al. [55] underlines that life skills can help each individual to solve a problem by themselves, instead of through help from others or by focusing on systems to change. This aspect promotes what is referred to as therapeutic culture [24], where individuals are responsible for coping with difficult situations, instead of solving them on a societal level. This can be problematic in education, because children and adolescents will be taught to deal with challenges by themselves and not seek support from others when needed. Even so, individualization in life skills can be viewed as necessary, because the topic promotes knowledge of one’s own body and health, as well as decision making in relation to making responsible choices [63]. Societies need autonomous citizens consistent with self-determination theory [64], enhancing life skills as knowledge that offers a sense of freedom, which provides control over one’s own life and allows the individual to feel capable of dealing with challenges, hence fostering individual empowerment.

Although only two definitions covered collectivistic aspects, over 50% of the definitions mentioned life skills as some type of social skill. The social aspect is thus expressed through describing life skills as social, psychosocial, or interpersonal skills. Implicitly, they refer to life skills as an ability that must be developed and applied in interactions with others, in line with sociocultural learning theory [20]. Interpersonal skills encompass communication, collaboration, conflict resolution, and empathy, which, according to Bandura and Walters [65], is learned through observing how others interact in social situations, whereby individuals acquire new behaviors. As our results show, life skills have also been categorized as behavioral skills, and WHO also emphasize life skills as “abilities for adaptive and positive behavior” [2] (p. 1). Social learning theory posits that individuals are more likely to imitate behaviors that they observe as positive and avoid behaviors with less favorable outcomes [65]. In this way, a collectivistic understanding shows that life skills can be developed and strengthened in interactions with others.

The concept of Bildung points to the transformation of the individual as affecting the surrounding society [17]. Life skills can contribute to the holistic development of an individual, where understanding, attitudes, and values are in focus [16]. In a way, the development of life skills within individuals can influence the surrounding society when they interact with each other and express these values and attitudes. Accordingly, the concept of Bildung highlights the significance of understanding life skills both as an individual and as a social phenomenon. In summary, it appears quite clear that it is the individual, and not the collectivistic or social understanding of life skills, that is mainly visible in the majority of the definitions found in the included literature. One could question if this is, in fact, in line with the ultimate goal of teaching this skillset.

4.4. Limitations and Future Research

Although a comprehensive literature review has been conducted, there are several limitations in this study. There is no guarantee that all relevant studies regarding life skills in compulsory education that would have met the inclusion criteria in this systematic scoping review were identified. This limitation could be attributed to the specific search terms, databases, and the predefined inclusion and exclusion criteria applied. Considering that this study only included scientific peer-reviewed articles, gray literature and other sources that could have contributed valuable insights have not been identified by this strategy. Additionally, in line with typical scoping review methodology, a quality appraisal of the studies was not conducted. Consequently, the quality of the included studies varies.

Further and different types of review studies are needed to investigate the findings from the life skills literature more in-depth. This systematic scoping review highlights a significant proportion of studies focused on adolescents. Future research could, therefore, benefit from exploring life skills education among younger children, as well as investigating the development and long-term impact of life skills interventions across different age groups, employing longitudinal designs. Moreover, understanding life skills in different contexts is crucial for intercultural competence. Thus, further research can shed light on how life skills education can be tailored to meet the diverse needs and backgrounds of students from different cultural, socioeconomic, and ethnic backgrounds. Additionally, as suggested in this review, there is a need for a more contemporary and comprehensive definition of life skills that aligns with the evolving demands of the 21st century. Future research could focus on developing updated conceptual frameworks that integrate emerging skills such as digital literacy, critical thinking, and adaptability into life skills education.

5. Conclusions and Implications

This review of empirical research investigating life skills in compulsory education in a Norwegian and international context contributes to a better understanding of the research field and how the concept of life skills is defined, as well as what needs to be researched further. Overall, the majority of the included studies were characterized by the purpose of assessing the efficacy of life skills programs or interventions, employing quantitative methods, and investigating attitudes, perceptions, or opinions of a population, concentrating on adolescents as an age group. The studies mostly defined life skills by describing them as a type of skill with an outcome, coming from an individualistic perspective. Thus, there is a need to further develop a collectivistic perspective, highlighting the social aspect within the frame of life skills education. It can seem like a consensus on a universally accepted definition of life skills has become increasingly challenging to develop, considering that it is a concept that varies from context to context. Beyond summarizing the research findings, this article can inform the establishment of a conceptual groundwork for comprehending the life skills phenomenon from different perspectives. It serves as a starting point for further research to delve into particular factors that are included within the definition of life skills.

The findings of this systematic scoping review carry several important implications for policy, practice, and future research in the field of life skills education. Firstly, policymakers can use these insights to develop evidence-based policies that prioritize life skills education in school curricula, particularly in regions where there are identified gaps or challenges. Effective implementation strategies, resource allocation, and teacher training programs can be informed by this review’s findings in order to ensure comprehensive and culturally responsive educational interventions. Furthermore, this review highlights the need for more conscious, unified, and updated employment of the life skills term in the scientific literature, enabling a consensus between various countries, stakeholders, and research environments.

By understanding the key components of life skills and their significance in students’ academic and personal development, educators and policymakers can work towards fostering the holistic growth and well-being of learners. In conclusion, this systematic scoping review contributes valuable insights to the discourse on life skills education, emphasizing its significance for holistic student development. By translating these findings into actionable strategies, stakeholders can collaborate to enhance educational outcomes and prepare individuals for future challenges in an increasingly complex world.