The Nexus between Crime Rates, Poverty, and Income Inequality: A Case Study of Indonesia
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Previous Studies
3. Methodology
4. Results
5. Discussion
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Variables | Description | |
---|---|---|
CRIME_RATE | Crime Rate | Crime rate per 100,000 population |
Gap_1 | Gini Ratio | Gini ratio values range between 0 (zero) and 1 (one). A value closer to 1 indicates a wider income inequality. |
Gap_2 | Gap in Non-Food Expenditure | A gap in the percentage of non-food consumption expenditures between urban and rural areas, ranging from 0 to 100. The closer to 100, the wider the gap in non-food consumption expenditures between urban and rural areas. |
Gap_3 | Gap in Food Expenditure | A gap in the food consumption expenditure ratio between urban and rural areas, ranging from 0 to 1. The closer to 1, the wider the gap in food consumption expenditure between urban and rural areas. |
GRDP 1 | Gross Regional Domestic Product | Gross Regional Domestic Product in each province. |
POP_DENSITY | Population Density | The level of population density in each province. |
ALS | Average Length of Schooling | The average length of schooling in each province. |
DI | Domestic Investment | Total domestic investment in each province. |
FDI | Foreign Direct Investment | Total Foreign Direct Investment in each province. |
INFSP | Infrastructure Spending | Local government spending on infrastructure. |
POOR | Number of Poor People | The total number of poor people in each province. |
AHCI | Average of Head Count Index | The average percentage of the population below the poverty line between urban and rural areas. |
APGI | Average of Poverty Gap Index | The average expenditure gap of each poor against the poverty line between urban and rural areas. |
APSI | Average of Poverty Severity Index | Average distribution of spending among the poor in urban and rural areas |
Variables | Mean | Median | Maximum | Minimum | Std. Dev. | Skewness | Kurtosis | Jarque-Bera |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
CRIME_RATE | 177.843 | 166.000 | 496.000 | 14.000 | 86.591 | 0.418 | 2.862 | 8.422 ** |
GAP_1 | 0.375 | 0.378 | 0.475 | 0.272 | 0.042 | −0.197 | 2.511 | 4.612 * |
GAP_2 | 12.191 | 10.861 | 66.240 | 2.060 | 9.664 | 4.425 | 23.498 | 5836.725 *** |
GAP_3 | 0.142 | 0.116 | 0.279 | 0.000 | 0.164 | 4.590 | 24.351 | 6324.026 *** |
GRDP | 38,134.920 | 28,575.950 | 174,136.600 | 9675.890 | 29,973.940 | 2.479 | 8.868 | 690.938 *** |
POP_DENSITY | 772.592 | 102.000 | 15,900.000 | 8.500 | 2683.533 | 5.147 | 28.110 | 8622.667 *** |
ALS | 8.109 | 8.040 | 11.060 | 6.070 | 0.951 | 0.548 | 3.304 | 15.151 *** |
DI | 6456.440 | 2876.500 | 62,094.800 | 1.000 | 10,106.060 | 2.799 | 11.420 | 1196.932 *** |
FDI | 856.464 | 390.900 | 7124.900 | 2.400 | 1271.393 | 2.484 | 9.350 | 760.925 *** |
INFSP | 1428.139 | 833.600 | 29,036.300 | 138.300 | 2600.061 | 6.727 | 58.935 | 38,751.890 *** |
POOR | 852.418 | 380.110 | 5356.210 | 48.610 | 1221.128 | 2.437 | 7.7386 | 540.967 *** |
AHCI | 11.133 | 9.565 | 31.920 | 3.445 | 5.672 | 0.923 | 3.515 | 42.967 *** |
APGI | 1.953 | 1.615 | 8.780 | 0.395 | 1.399 | 1.926 | 7.608 | 422.304 *** |
APSI | 0.525 | 0.400 | 3.430 | 0.000 | 0.493 | 2.805 | 12.624 | 1452.981 *** |
GAP_1 | GAP_2 | GAP_3 | ||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
(1) | (2) | (3) | (4) | (5) | (6) | (7) | (8) | (9) | (10) | (11) | (12) | |
CRIME_RATE(−1) | 0.177 *** | 0.167 *** | −0.100 | 0.095 | 0.181 *** | 0.118 ** | 0.019 | 0.155 ** | 0.144*** | 0.135 *** | 0.045 | 0.151 *** |
(0.040) | (0.036) | (0.116) | (0.071) | (0.037) | (0.046) | (0.044) | (0.080) | (0.053) | (0.046) | (0.053) | (0.036) | |
GAP | −0.060 | 0.343 | 2.925 ** | 0.168 | 0.010 *** | 0.014 *** | 0.036 *** | −0.001 | 0.017 | 0.358 * | 0.344 | 0.301 |
(0.250) | (0.251) | (1.144) | (0.285) | (0.003) | (0.005) | (0.009) | (0.010) | (0.290) | (0.183) | (0.256) | (0.379) | |
LNGRDP | 0.582 ** | 0.432 | 0.718 | 0.377 | 0.392 ** | 0.027 | 0.692 ** | 0.407 | 0.777 *** | 0.736 * | 0.736 ** | 0.636 |
(0.295) | (0.267) | (0.755) | (0.262) | (0.182) | (0.254) | (0.310) | (0.389) | (0.196) | (0.425) | (0.362) | (0.518) | |
LNPOP_DENSITY | −0.706 | −0.065 | −0.899 | 0.163 | −0.628 | −1.200 | −0.139 | −2.470 | −0.115 | −1.351 | −0.095 | −1.366 |
(1.056) | (0.777) | (2.674) | (2.004) | (0.726) | (1.050) | (0.989) | (1.998) | (0.287) | (0.962) | (0.856) | (1.210) | |
LNALS | −2.215 | −2.167 | −1.148 | −3.639 * | −2.598 ** | 1.354 | −3.581 ** | −1.667 | −4.064 *** | −0.557 | −3.798 ** | −3.485 *** |
(1.682) | (1.631) | (2.694) | (1.948) | (1.072) | (1.580) | (1.487) | (1.808) | (0.797) | (1.845) | (1.626) | (0.845) | |
LNDI | −0.048 *** | −0.045 *** | −0.099 *** | −0.052 *** | −0.014 *** | −0.013 *** | 0.003 | −0.052 *** | −0.058 *** | −0.015 ** | −0.067 *** | −0.013 * |
(0.005) | (0.006) | (0.022) | (0.007) | (0.005) | (0.005) | (0.008) | (0.013) | (0.008) | (0.007) | (0.007) | (0.007) | |
LNFDI | −0.034 * | −0.039 ** | −0.112 ** | −0.042 | −0.042 ** | −0.042 | −0.089 *** | 0.004 | −0.032 * | −0.010 | −0.031 | −0.015 |
(0.018) | (0.017) | (0.050) | (0.032) | (0.017) | (0.026) | (0.030) | (0.036) | (0.017) | (0.021) | (0.020) | (0.020) | |
LNINFSP | 0.055 ** | 0.075 *** | 0.250 *** | 0.166 ** | 0.071 *** | 0.081 *** | 0.064 *** | 0.268 *** | 0.067 | 0.087 *** | 0.110 *** | 0.104 *** |
(0.026) | (0.017) | (0.084) | (0.067) | (0.026) | (0.026) | (0.018) | (0.081) | (0.049) | (0.025) | (0.025) | (0.022) | |
LNPOOR | 1.066 *** | 0.898 *** | 0.694 * | |||||||||
(0.244) | (0.245) | (0.361) | ||||||||||
AHCI | 0.073 * | 0.187 *** | 0.184 *** | |||||||||
(0.041) | 0.037 | (0.040) | ||||||||||
APGI | 0.568 *** | 0.353 *** | 0.242 *** | |||||||||
(0.107) | (0.066) | (0.029) | ||||||||||
APSI | 0.886 *** | 0.993 *** | 0.710 *** | |||||||||
(0.094) | (0.151) | (0.131) | ||||||||||
AR(1) | 0.7390 | 0.0601 | 0.1034 | 0.0812 | 0.0571 | 0.9867 | 0.1450 | 0.0523 | 0.9802 | 0.1307 | 0.2732 | 0.0841 |
AR(2) | 0.2018 | 0.0967 | 0.5025 | 0.6117 | 0.1926 | 0.9693 | 0.2716 | 0.5852 | 0.9846 | 0.1053 | 0.6130 | 0.1646 |
J-Statistic | 0.3238 | 0.2684 | 0.3923 | 0.4691 | 0.2035 | 0.3231 | 0.3504 | 0.3851 | 0.2848 | 0.2682 | 0.4368 | 0.3522 |
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Sugiharti, L.; Purwono, R.; Esquivias, M.A.; Rohmawati, H. The Nexus between Crime Rates, Poverty, and Income Inequality: A Case Study of Indonesia. Economies 2023, 11, 62. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11020062
Sugiharti L, Purwono R, Esquivias MA, Rohmawati H. The Nexus between Crime Rates, Poverty, and Income Inequality: A Case Study of Indonesia. Economies. 2023; 11(2):62. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11020062
Chicago/Turabian StyleSugiharti, Lilik, Rudi Purwono, Miguel Angel Esquivias, and Hilda Rohmawati. 2023. "The Nexus between Crime Rates, Poverty, and Income Inequality: A Case Study of Indonesia" Economies 11, no. 2: 62. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11020062
APA StyleSugiharti, L., Purwono, R., Esquivias, M. A., & Rohmawati, H. (2023). The Nexus between Crime Rates, Poverty, and Income Inequality: A Case Study of Indonesia. Economies, 11(2), 62. https://doi.org/10.3390/economies11020062