Cuff-Less and Continuous Blood Pressure Monitoring: A Methodological Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Cardiovascular System and the Electrical-Mechanical Coupling of the Heart
2.1. Electro-Mechanical Cardiac Signals
2.2. Relationship between BP, Pressure Wave Velocity (PWV) and Time Period
2.3. Determination of the “Time Delay”
2.3.1. Pulse Transit Time (PTT)
2.3.2. Pulse Arrival Time (PAT)
3. Mathematical Models
3.1. Logarithmic Model
3.2. Proportional (Linear) Model
3.3. Inverse Square Model
3.4. Inverse Model
3.5. Comparison between Models
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Acknowledgment
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Algorithm | Time Delay | Calibration Technique | Results | Refs | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SBP | DBP | MAP | ||||
PTTf | Subject specific | −0.22 ± 0.46 2 | - | - | [82] | |
PATf | −0.85 ± 0.09 2 | |||||
PTTf | 0.9 3 | |||||
PATp | A: Dependent on Height B: Subject specific | 0.0790 ± 11.32 1 | - | - | [73] | |
PATf | Subject specific | 0.99–0.90 2 | - | - | [65] | |
PATp | Subject specific | −0.92 2 | −0.38 2 | - | [83] | |
RT: −0.87 2,* | RT: −0.30 2,* | |||||
PATm | Subject specific | 0.701 3 | 0.401 3 | - | [84] | |
PATp | Subject specific | 0.95–0.87 3 | 0.01–0.73 3 | - | [85] | |
PATp | Subject specific | −0.71 2 | −0.69 2 | - | [25] | |
PATm | −0.32 2 | −0.22 2 | ||||
PATf | −0.09 2 | −0.02 2 | ||||
PATp | Subject specific | 0.32 2 | [28] | |||
PATm | 0.27 2 | |||||
PATf | 0.45 2 | |||||
PATp | Subject specific | 0.95 3 | 0.26 3 | [69] | ||
PATm | 0.89 3 | 0.78 3 | [86] | |||
PATp | 0.96 3 | 0.70 3 | - | [69] | ||
PATp | Subject specific | 0.97 ± 0.87 3 | 0.54 ± 0.05 3 | - | [85] | |
PATf | Subject specific | 0.93 2 | - | 0.83 2 | [87] | |
PATf | 0.94 2 | 0.86 2 | ||||
PATm | Subject specific, Maximum Likelihood | 0.978 3 | 0.974 3 | - | [88] | |
PATm | Subject specific, Adaptive Kalman filter | 0.976 3 | 0.989 3 | - | ||
PATm | Subject specific | 0.85 3 | 0.74 3 | - | [84] | |
PTTf | and are calculated for a demographically similar group. | - | −1.49 ± 6.51 1 | - | [61,63] | |
2.16 ± 6.23 1 | - | |||||
PATm | Subject specific | 0.6 ± 9.81 | 0.9 ± 5.6 1 | - | [30] | |
PATm | Universal | 0.83 2 | - | - | [89] | |
2 | PATm | Subject specific | 0.91 2 | 0.88 2 | 0.89 2 | [90] |
Procedure | Description | Refs |
---|---|---|
Physical Exercise | Graded Bicycle Test, Running, Sit-ups | [87,99] |
Posture | Sitting, standing and lying supine | [100] |
Valsalva Maneuver | Breathing against closed nose/mouth for 30 s | [101] |
Cold Pressure | Placement of ice wrapped in wet cloth on subject’s forehead for 2 min. Hand in 4 °C water for 1 min | [102,103] |
Mental Arithmetic | Counting backwards from 500 in intervals of 7, Continuous addition of 3 digit numbers for 2 min | [104] |
Relaxation | Slow breathing/Meditative music | [105,106] |
Amyl Nitrate | Inhalation of vasodilator | [107] |
Anesthesia | Dental anesthesia | [84,108] |
Isometric Exercise | Raising legs/arms against pressure | [109] |
Sustained Handgrip | Clenching one’s fist forcefully | [110,111] |
Algorithm/Characteristic Point | PATf | PATm | PATp | |
---|---|---|---|---|
SBP | aln(PAT) + b | 0.1 ± 11 | 8.9 | 0.3 ± 11 |
a/PAT2 + b | 0.1 ± 12 | 0.1 ± 12 | 0.1 ± 12 | |
a/PAT + b | 0.1 ± 13 | 0.1 ± 13 | 0.1 ± 13 | |
aPAT + bHR + c | 0.1 ± 14 | 0.1 ± 14 | 0.1 ± 14 | |
MAP | aln(PAT) + b | 0.1 ± 15 | 0.1 ± 15 | 0.1 ± 15 |
a/PAT2 + b | 0.1 ± 16 | 0.1 ± 16 | 0.1 ± 16 | |
a/PAT + b | 0.1 ± 17 | 0.1 ± 17 | 0.1 ± 17 | |
aPAT + bHR + c | 0.1 ± 18 | 0.1 ± 18 | 0.1 ± 18 | |
DBP | aln(PAT) + b | 0.1 ± 19 | 0.1 ± 19 | 0.1 ± 19 |
a/PAT2 + b | 0.1 ± 20 | 0.1 ± 20 | 0.1 ± 20 | |
a/PAT + b | 0.1 ± 21 | 0.1 ± 21 | 0.1 ± 21 | |
aPAT + bHR + c | 0.1 ± 22 | 0.1 ± 22 | 0.1 ± 22 |
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Sharma, M.; Barbosa, K.; Ho, V.; Griggs, D.; Ghirmai, T.; Krishnan, S.K.; Hsiai, T.K.; Chiao, J.-C.; Cao, H. Cuff-Less and Continuous Blood Pressure Monitoring: A Methodological Review. Technologies 2017, 5, 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies5020021
Sharma M, Barbosa K, Ho V, Griggs D, Ghirmai T, Krishnan SK, Hsiai TK, Chiao J-C, Cao H. Cuff-Less and Continuous Blood Pressure Monitoring: A Methodological Review. Technologies. 2017; 5(2):21. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies5020021
Chicago/Turabian StyleSharma, Manuja, Karinne Barbosa, Victor Ho, Devon Griggs, Tadesse Ghirmai, Sandeep K. Krishnan, Tzung K. Hsiai, Jung-Chih Chiao, and Hung Cao. 2017. "Cuff-Less and Continuous Blood Pressure Monitoring: A Methodological Review" Technologies 5, no. 2: 21. https://doi.org/10.3390/technologies5020021