Spectral Imager of the Solar Atmosphere: The First Extreme-Ultraviolet Solar Integral Field Spectrograph Using Slicers
Abstract
:1. The Need for Solar Integral Field Spectrographs in the Extreme Ultraviolet
2. SISA Science in the SPARK Framework
- How does impulsive energy release events lead to accelerate particles in the solar atmosphere? SISA shall provide several measurements of accelerated particles in EUV, both electrons through line ratios (see Section 3.2) and ions through line profiles (see Section 3.3). The integral field spectroscopy of SISA will offer insights as to where and when the particles are accelerated, while the fast cadence will reveal how long they persist at a given location. Measuring the spatial distribution of the accelerated particles, and their relationship to magnetic field (see Section 3.1) and field-aligned emission structures, will also offer insights as to the conditions required for particle acceleration, both in solar flares and active-region corona. The fast-cadence SISA observations with multiple hot lines (Table 1) shall also clarify the relationship of particle acceleration to plasma heating. Finally, since the emission line profiles reflect the line-of-sight distribution of ion velocities, from zero to very high velocities, they provide key information about both the high-energy particles simultaneously with the low-energy end of the distribution, which is not accessible with either LISSAN or FOXSI instruments.
- How is impulsively released energy transported and dissipated in the solar atmosphere? Once heated, the hot flare plasma evolves rapidly on short timescales depending on the conditions. The hot flare lines observed by SISA cover some of the largest available temperatures via EUV line spectroscopy (Table 1) and are thus favourable for characterising the hot flare plasma and its evolution. Typically, the hot plasma is observed first above the chromospheric footpoints in the form of localised bright kernels, e.g., Refs. [13,14], from which the flare loops are filled. Indications exist, however, that these kernels located within bright flare ribbons can already be pre-heated by electron beams [15,16]. These kernels have long been observed to move along ribbons, e.g., Refs. [17,18,19], which have been identified as a consequence of 3D slipping reconnection, e.g., Refs. [4,14,20,21,22,23,24], where the field lines do not reconnect in an X-point, but slip (slide) past each other as they mutually exchange their connectivities see, e.g., Refs. [25,26,27]. The existence of this process implies that the location of the energy deposition into the lower solar atmosphere changes with time as the slipping reconnection proceeds. In the past, it has been extremely difficult to identify the spectroscopic signatures of this process due to the slit not being able (or designed) to track a particular moving (slipping) kernel. Using sit-and-stare observations Li and Zhang [22] showed that the slipping reconnection is likely be related to periodic changes in the Si iv spectral line intensities accompanied by enhanced redshifts, as well as increased nonthermal widths, as individual kernels moved through the location of the slit. Recently, Lörinčík et al. [4] detected extremely short-lived blueshifts (upflows), lasting only seconds, and reaching about 50 km s−1 in chromospheric and transition-region lines, at the leading edges of the slipping kernels. The authors argued that such detection can be a matter of luck with slit spectrographs, as the slit has to be in the right place at the right time. The IFS provided by SISA shall be enormously helpful in this regard, as it can image the entire flare region and allow us to identify how the flaring atmosphere undergoing slipping reconnection responds at short temporal cadences, as well as enable the tracking of the spectral evolution of individual moving kernels as they slip along flare ribbons. In addition, the SISA thermal coverage would help in establishing whether the blueshifts at the leading edges of ribbons or individual kernels are related to the evaporation of hot flare plasma.The fastest upflow velocities of the evaporating hot flaring plasma filling coronal loops are detected in the hottest flare lines [13], while the ‘cooler’ (T < ∼1 MK) lines show downflows at the same location, implying multi-directional flows that could occur due to rapid plasma evolution. The fast SISA cadence and the integral field spectroscopy, coupled with the available plasma diagnostics (Section 3), will provide key information on the thermal evolution of the heated plasma. For example, the diagnostics of electron density coupled with the measured timescales of plasma cooling will allow one to discern whether the plasma is in ionisation equilibrium, and at what times. Meanwhile, the emission line profiles will provide information on the presence and role of turbulence. Mass flows and the thermodynamic evolution of the atmosphere determined via spectroscopy can reveal much about the energy input into the lower atmosphere during flares, especially when combined with state-of-the-art modelling. For example, flare observations from the Interface Region Imaging Spectrograph IRIS, as seen in Refs. [10,28], have been used in tandem with flare loop models to interrogate our understanding of flare processes [29,30]. There is a major model–data discrepancy in the duration of the flare gradual phase, with models under-predicting the cooling time by an order of magnitude. SISA observations that provide plasma diagnostics over the full field of view, with high cadence, will help illuminate the source of the continued heating or energy input. Measurements of nonthermal line widths from lines formed at different temperatures will inform us about the roles of turbulence in suppressing thermal conduction, e.g., Ref. [31], and the potential role of Alfvén waves in flares, e.g., Refs. [32,33].SISA measurements will provide key diagnostics of processes that occur within flares on short timescales. For example, a key open question in the solar flare energy release is what drives “bursty” pulsations and the oscillatory signatures observed in flare emission, known as quasi-periodic pulsations (QPPs), reviews of which can be found in Refs. [34,35,36]. QPPs and other oscillatory behaviour observed in flares have timescales ranging from sub-seconds to minutes, and are identified across the entire electromagnetic spectrum from radio, EUV [37], X-rays [38], and even -rays [39], essentially encompassing all aspects of the flaring process. The exact nature and underlying physical mechanism for the generation of these pulsations remains highly debated. It is suggested that they may be related to magnetohydrodynamic oscillations in/near the flare site, or possibly connected to the intermittent or time-dependent magnetic reconnection itself. Observational limitations of temporal cadences, spatial resolution, and saturation issues with EUV imagers have to date limited our ability to observationally identify the locations of the emission modulations and constrain the suggested models—both of which are directly linked to energy release and transport in solar flares. Some work has aimed to identify the spatial locations of the modulations, e.g., Refs. [22,37,40,41,42], although there are limits to the temporal cadences and spatial diagnostics, for example, there is only spatial observation along the slit position. In order to correctly identify the mechanism producing QPPs, the characteristics of the temporal, spatial, and spectral properties of pulsations and their relationships across energy ranges and temperatures are required. The SISA EUV measurements, with its high temporal cadence and its ability to perform the imaging spectroscopy of the flaring region (rather than just over the slit), will allow us to observe rapid changes in the flaring regions such as these pulsations, with information regarding where and at what temperature they originate in the flare structure.Finally, although there is unambiguous evidence for the presence of nonthermal particles in flares, other mechanisms may also act to transport liberated magnetic energy. High-frequency Alfvén waves have been proposed as a means of transporting energy the magnetic reconnection site to the lower atmosphere and heating it, e.g., as shown in Refs. [43,44,45]. Modelling has revealed that those waves do indeed heat the chromosphere, and drive explosive evaporation into the corona [46,47]. While it is likely that MHD waves are produced during flares, which are fundamentally a large-scale change in the corona’s magnetic field, the proportion of energy that manifests itself in the form of waves compared to energetic particles is not known. SISA’s capability to measure the coronal magnetic field before, during, and after a flare will provide crucial information regarding field perturbations, density diagnostics, and the Alfvén speed, which will help to provide estimates of the Poynting flux carried by MHD waves. Furthermore, the nonthermal broadening of ions will also help constrain the Poynting flux see discussion, e.g., in Ref. [32].
- What are the physical origins of space weather events in the low-corona? Both coronal mass ejections (CMEs) and jets inject magnetic field and plasma into the heliosphere, where they disturb the solar wind flow. Although previous studies of CME source regions have provided details about the physical processes taking place once a CME has initiated, many questions remain regarding their initiation and similarities with smaller-scale flux rope eruptions within solar jets. Observing the initiation of both CMEs and jets spectroscopically is quite difficult with current or planned instrumentation for several reasons, including the use of a single slit, long exposure times, or limited diagnostics and temperature coverage provided by the available spectral lines. SISA will capture these processes at cadences down to a few seconds from every pixel within its entire field of view. This will allow us to identify the locations, spectral properties, plasma conditions, and thus the mechanisms behind the processes of CME and jet initiations. In larger eruptive events, SISA will be able to capture the entirety of the precursor phase of the associated flare. The spatial localisation of the precursors with respect to the subsequent flare and eruption allows for the identification of the CME initiation mechanism, whether by tether-cutting, ideal MHD instability, or breakout, as can be seen in Ref. [48] for every flare observed. The high-temperature lines observed by SISA (Table 1) will provide information on the plasma properties during the onset of eruptive events, including the possibly constant, isothermal 10–15 MK onset temperatures detected by broad-band X-ray instrumentation [49]. These lines will also allow the quantification of plasma heating (via temperature and density measurements) as well as turbulence (via line broadening) in the precursor phase.
- How is the corona above active regions heated? It is currently thought that the solar corona is heated by individual impulsive “nanoflare” events that release small amounts of energy at either high or low frequencies, e.g., in Refs. [6,7,8,50,51]. A key prediction of such impulsive energy release is the existence of small amounts of hot 5–10 MK plasma, which is difficult to detect spectroscopically with currently available instrumentation [52,53,54,55,56]. The spectral range of SISA contains several hot lines (Table 1) that will provide stringent constraints on the amount of plasma reaching 10 MK temperatures. The Fe xvii and Ni xvii lines (Table 1) shall provide additional constraints. SISA will also work in tandem with the HXR and SXR observations to constrain the high-T component of the impulsive energy release by nanoflares. Another key observable of impulsive energy release is that the plasma should at least temporarily be out of thermal equilibrium, showing either the presence of accelerated particles, out-of-ionisation equilibrium plasma, e.g., Refs. [57,58,59,60], or both. The coronal Fe xi lines formed in both quiet Sun and active regions offer such diagnostics for electrons [61,62] while the line profiles of multiple ionisation stages shall provide information on ion velocity distribution [63,64,65,66]. Furthermore, the temporal evolution of the line intensities of multiple ionisation stages obtained in high cadences in combination with electron density diagnostics (Section 3.7) shall provide information on both the presence of energy release events and constraints on the presence of non-equilibrium ionisation for multiple coronal structures at the same time, a feat not possible with current or planned instrumentation. Finally, it will become possible for the first time to tie all these measurements to the measurements of the underlying magnetic field (Section 3.1), thus allowing for discerning whether there are different heating mechanisms for different magnetic structures within the active and quiescent solar corona.
3. SISA EUV Measurements and Diagnostics
3.1. Magnetic Field Measurements
3.2. Electron Temperature and Nonthermal Diagnostics
3.3. Ion Temperature and Nonthermal Diagnostics
3.4. Electron Density Diagnostics
3.5. Elemental Composition Diagnostics
3.6. Flare Lines
3.7. Departures from Ionisation Equilibrium
3.8. Predicted Signal in the Main SISA Lines
4. Image Slicer Technology in the EUV Regime
5. SISA Instrument Proposal
5.1. Specifications
5.2. Layout
5.3. Components
5.4. Efficiency
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AIA | Atmospheric Imaging Assembly |
AIV | Alignment Integration and Verification |
CCD | Charge-Coupled Device |
CME | Coronal Mass Ejection |
CUBES | Cassegrain U-Band Efficient Spectrograph |
EIS | EUV Imaging Spectrometer Onboard Hinode |
ELT | Extremely Large Telescope |
EUI | Extreme Ultraviolet Imager (onboard Solar Orbiter) |
EUV | Extreme Ultraviolet |
EUVST | Extreme Ultraviolet High-Throughput Spectroscopic Telescope |
EVE | EUV Variability Experiment Onboard SDO |
FIP | First Ionisation Potential |
FOXSI | Focusing Optics X-ray Solar Imager |
FRIDA | Infrared Imager and Dissector for Adaptive optics |
Full Width Half Maximum | |
FUV | Far Ultraviolet |
FWHM | Full Width Half Maximum |
GOES | Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite |
GNIRS | Gemini Near-Infrared Spectrograph |
GRIS | Gregor Infrared Spectrograph |
GTC | Gran Telescopio Canarias |
HARMONI | High-Angular-Resolution Monolithic Optical |
and Near-Infrared Integral field spectrograph | |
HXR | Hard X-ray |
IFS | Integral Field Spectrograph |
IFU | Integral Field Unit |
INFUSE | Integral Field Ultraviolet Spectroscopic Experiment |
LISSAN | Large Imaging Spectrometer for Solar Accelerated Nuclei |
LUCES | Looking Up Image Slicer Optimum Capabilities in the EUV for Space |
METIS | Mid-Infrared E-ELT Imager and Spectrograph |
MHD | Magnetohydrodynamic |
MINOS | Manufacturing of Image Slicer Novel technology for Space |
MIRI | Mid-Infrared Instrument |
MUSE | Multi-Slit Solar Explorer |
QPP | Quasi-Periodic Pulsations |
SDO | Solar Dynamics Observatory |
SISA | Spectral Imaging of the Solar Atmosphere |
SNIFS | Solar Eruption Integral Field Spectrograph |
SPARK | Solar Particle Acceleration, Radiation, and Kinetics Mission |
SXR | Soft X-ray |
TRL | Technology Readiness Level |
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Ion | λ (Å) | log T | AR Core | M2 Flare | Notes |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Ni xv | 178.89 | 6.5 | 15 | 1.2 × 102 | |
Fe xxi | 178.90 | 7.1 | - | 4.8 × 102 (145) | ** Flare Ne |
Fe xi | 179.76 | 6.1 | 130 (40) | 9.0 × 102 (276) | ** Ne |
Fe xxiii | 180.04 | 7.2 | - | 8.8 × 102 (270) | * Flare |
Fe xi | 180.40 | 6.1 | 1.4 × 103 (429) | 3.1 × 103 (950) | ** (bl Fe x) |
Ca xv | 181.90 | 6.5 | - | 4.2 × 102 (156) | *** Ne |
Fe xi | 182.17 | 6.1 | 120 (47) | 1.1 × 103 (429) | *** Ne |
Ca xv | 182.86 | 6.5 | - | 6.4 × 102 (310) | *** Ne |
Fe x | 184.54 | 6.0 | 220 (175) | 5.5 × 102 (439) | *** Coronal B |
Fe xi | 184.79 | 6.1 | 76 (64) | 5.0 × 102 (424) | *** Ne |
Fe xii | 186.89 | 6.2 | 600 (395) | 2790 (1836) | (bl) ** Ne |
Fe xxi | 187.93 | 7.1 | - | 3.8 × 103 (1172) | *** Flare (bl Ar xiv) |
Ar xiv | 187.96 | 6.5 | 21 | 3.4 × 102 | ** Ne, FIP |
Fe xi | 188.22 | 6.1 | 710 (160) | 1.6 × 103 (362) | *** |
Ar xv | 221.15 | 6.5 | 73 (13) | 3.4 × 103 (584) | *** FIP |
Fe xxiii | 221.34 | 7.2 | - | 5.6 × 102 (100) | Flare |
S xii | 221.43 | 6.4 | 90 (16) | 4.1 × 102 (75) | ** FIP |
Fe xv | 233.87 | 6.5 | 260 (247) | 3.0 × 103 (2850) | ** Ne |
Fe ix | 241.74 | 5.9 | 120 (189) | 120 (189) | *** Ne |
Fe xxi | 242.05 | 7.1 | - | 4.1 × 103 (6540) | *** Flare Ne |
He ii | 243.03 | ||||
Ar xiv | 243.75 | 6.4 | 43 | 5.3 × 102 | FIP (bl) |
Fe xv | 243.79 | 6.5 | 880 (1502) | 6.5 × 103 (11095) | (bl Ar xiv) |
Fe ix | 244.91 | 5.9 | 80 (141) | 2.3 × 102 (406) | *** Ne |
Fe xxi | 246.95 | 7.1 | - | 6.5 × 102 (1205) | *** Flare |
Fe xxii | 247.19 | 7.1 | - | 8.0 × 103 (14887) | *** Flare |
Ar xiii | 248.68 | 6.2 | 7 (13) | 1.1 × 102 (209) | ** FIP |
Ni xvii | 249.19 | 6.6 | 840 (1598) | 9.3 × 103 (17690) | *** Flare |
Fe xii | 249.39 | 6.2 | 65 (124) | 2.4 × 102 (457) | |
Fe xvi | 251.06 | 6.5 | 650 (1234) | 1.0 × 104 (18979) | |
Fe xiii | 251.95 | 6.2 | 460 (864) | 1.7 × 103 (3194) | |
Fe xiv | 252.20 | 6.4 | 280 (524) | 1.8 × 103 (3367) | |
Fe xxii | 253.17 | 7.1 | - | 3.9 × 103 (7177) | *** Flare |
Fe xvii | 254.88 | 6.6 | - | 3.5 × 103 (6140) | *** Flare |
Fe xxiv | 255.11 | 7.3 | - | 4.8 × 104 (83656) | *** Flare |
He ii | 256.3 | (bl) | |||
S xiii | 256.68 | 6.5 | 1.1 × 103 (1797) | 8.6 × 103 (14055) | ** FIP |
Fe x | 257.26 | 6.0 | 140 (222) | 150 (238) | *** coronal B |
Fe xiv | 257.39 | 6.4 | 420 (663) | 2.1 × 103 (3317) | |
Fe xi | 257.55 | 6.1 | 80 (125) | 2.3 × 102 (360) | ** Te, NMED |
Si x | 258.37 | 6.2 | 420 (628) | 1.5 × 103 (2243) | Ne |
S x | 259.50 | 6.2 | 53 (74) | 1.8 × 102 (251) | *** FIP |
Si x | 261.06 | 6.2 | 140 (175) | 4.2 × 102 (525) | Ne |
Fe xvi | 262.98 | 6.5 | 1.1 × 103 (1148) | 1.7 × 104 (17754) | |
Fe xxiii | 263.77 | 7.2 | - | 2.1 × 104 (20192) | *** Flare |
S x | 264.2 | 6.2 | 77 (71) | 257 (237) | *** FIP |
Field of view | 100″ × 100″ |
Spectral window 1 | 178–184 Å |
Spectral window 2 | 246–258 Å |
Spectral resolution | 0.05 Å FWHM |
Spatial resolution | <3″ |
Spectral resolving power (R) | 3560–5160 |
Temporal resolution (high signal) | <3 s |
Temporal resolution (low signal) | <30 s |
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Calcines Rosario, A.; Auchère, F.; Corso, A.J.; Del Zanna, G.; Dudík, J.; Gissot, S.; Hayes, L.A.; Kerr, G.S.; Kintziger, C.; Matthews, S.A.; et al. Spectral Imager of the Solar Atmosphere: The First Extreme-Ultraviolet Solar Integral Field Spectrograph Using Slicers. Aerospace 2024, 11, 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11030208
Calcines Rosario A, Auchère F, Corso AJ, Del Zanna G, Dudík J, Gissot S, Hayes LA, Kerr GS, Kintziger C, Matthews SA, et al. Spectral Imager of the Solar Atmosphere: The First Extreme-Ultraviolet Solar Integral Field Spectrograph Using Slicers. Aerospace. 2024; 11(3):208. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11030208
Chicago/Turabian StyleCalcines Rosario, Ariadna, Frederic Auchère, Alain Jody Corso, Giulio Del Zanna, Jaroslav Dudík, Samuel Gissot, Laura A. Hayes, Graham S. Kerr, Christian Kintziger, Sarah A. Matthews, and et al. 2024. "Spectral Imager of the Solar Atmosphere: The First Extreme-Ultraviolet Solar Integral Field Spectrograph Using Slicers" Aerospace 11, no. 3: 208. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace11030208