An Overview of the Global Market, Fleet, and Components in the Field of Aviation Gasoline
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- Avgas 100LL (Low Lead)—the most universal and widespread aviation gasoline grade in the world in terms of production and consumption, which is approved for use in almost all piston aircrafts. Requirements for this fuel grade are set in the specifications ASTM D910 and UK DEF STAN 91-90. There is also a more environmentally friendly modification of Avgas 100LL—Avgas 100VLL (Very Low Lead)—for which the maximum lead content is set to 0.45 g Pb/L (from 0.56 g Pb/L for Avgas 100LL) [5].
- B-91/115—a grade developed in the USSR, produced according to the Russian standard GOST 1012 or Polish specification WT-06/OBR PR/PD/60 [6]; it is mainly used in Russia and in the CIS for aircrafts equipped with Russian engines (ASH-62ir, AI-26V, M-14B, M-14P and M-14V-26); it is also allowed on most engines produced by Continental and Lycoming. It differs from Avgas 100LL in its lower antiknock resistance and less stringent lead content standard.
- UL82 and UL87—unleaded aviation gasoline, designed for engines with a low-compression ratio. Requirements are regulated according to ASTM D6227.
- UL91 and UL94—the most researched and widely used unleaded grades of aviation gasoline that were developed to replace Avgas 100LL and have been approved for more than 90% of the fleet. The standards are established according to the ASTM D7547 standard.
- UL100 and UL 102—promising grades of aviation gasoline designed to replace Avgas 100LL. The standards for test gasoline blends are established in the specifications ASTM D7960 and ASTM D7719.
- To assess the aviation gasoline market globally and in key regions according to consumers/producers, as well as the relation to economic indicators (presented in Section 3.1 and Section 3.2).
- Evaluate the state of the fleet: the number and types of aircraft and its development prospects (described in Section 3.3).
- Analyze aviation gasoline key components (presented in Section 3.4).
2. Methodology
- According to market analysis, not all countries publish open information about the aviation gasoline market; for such regions as the APR (namely China) and some African countries, UN information is not available or may be unreliable.
- Using the average cost of aviation gasoline allows for only a rough estimate of the level of revenue from fuel sales.
- Technology is also evaluated only through public information found in patents and articles; the actual components may be slightly different.
3. Results and Discussions
3.1. Aviation Gasoline Market
3.1.1. Global Aviation Gasoline Market
3.1.2. The European Aviation Gasoline Market
3.1.3. The North American Aviation Gasoline Market
3.1.4. The South American Aviation Gasoline Market
3.1.5. The Aviation Gasoline Market of the Asia–Pacific Region
3.1.6. The African Aviation Gasoline Market
3.1.7. The Aviation Gasoline Market of CIS Countries
3.2. Production and Economic Performance Relations
3.3. The State of the World’s Piston Aviation Fleet
3.4. An Overview of Components Used in the Production of Aviation Gasoline
- (1)
- oxygen-containing compounds (oxygenates);
- (2)
- aromatic amines;
- (3)
- manganese antiknock agents;
- (4)
- individual aromatic hydrocarbons (other than toluene);
- (5)
- combinations of the compounds above.
4. Conclusions
- The largest share of aviation gasoline production in a GDP is observed in developed countries with a high GDP per capita, such as the USA, Canada, Australia, Poland, and the Netherlands. Just 5 of these countries account for 88% of aviation gasoline production. A total of 77% of consumption is in the USA, Canada, Brazil, France, and Australia. In general, less than 10 market players influence its development.
- The decarbonization of civil aviation has not yet reached light aviation; there are currently no roadmaps, except for the phase-out of leaded fuel. However, as civil aviation decarbonizes and moves away from piston engines, the use of aviation gasoline will gradually decline. It will be replaced with jet-powered aircraft as well as hydrogen and electricity.
- However, before piston aircraft are phased out, the primary issue of lead in fuel needs to be resolved, and fuel can be standardized. Today’s aircraft fleet are 100% covered by 100LL gasoline; the recent approval of G100UL fuel for all engine types holds great promise for the introduction of unleaded aviation gasolines. Once the leaded gasoline ban is implemented, the market is expected to switch to 100% unleaded gasoline.
- The average composition of UL91 and UL94 unleaded grades based on alkylate, isomerate, isopentane fraction, and an aromatic component was formulated. The main directions for the possible development of aviation gasolines with a MON over 100 have been determined as follows: the use of aromatic amines, manganese antiknock agents, and individual aromatic hydrocarbons in the composition of oxygenates.
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Company | AVGAS Grade|Standard | Country of Import |
---|---|---|
Shell (London, UK) | 100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90 | North and South America, EU, Asia–Pacific |
TotalEnergies (Paris, France) | UL91|ASTM D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90 100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90 | EU |
Vitol Group (Rotterdam, The Netherlands) | 100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90 | EU, Asia–Pacific, North America, Africa |
BP (London, UK) | UL91|ASTM D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90 100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90 | EU, Asia–Pacific, North and South America, Africa |
Repsol (Madrid, Spain) | 100LL|ASTM D910 | EU, Asia–Pacific, North and South America, Africa |
Warter Aviation (Plock, Poland) | UL91|ASTM D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90 100LL|WT-09/OBR PR/PD/48 B-91/115|GOST 1012-72 and WT-06/OBR PR/PD/60 | EU, CIS |
Hjelmco Oil (Sollentuna, Sweden) | 91/96UL|ASTM D7547 mod. 100LL ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90 | Sweden, Japan |
Company | Avgas Grade|Standard | Country of Import |
---|---|---|
ConocoPhillips (Houston, TX, USA) | 100LL|ASTM D910 | North America |
ExxonMobil (Irving TX, USA) | 100LL|ASTM D910 | North and South America, EU, Asia–Pacific, Africa |
Phillips66 (Houston, TX, USA) | 100LL|ASTM D910 | North America |
Shell (London, UK) | 100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90 | North and South America, EU, Asia–Pacific |
Vitol Group (Rotterdam, The Netherlands) | 100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90 | EU, Asia–Pacific, North America, Africa |
BP (London, UK) | UL91|ASTM D7547 and DEF STAN 91-90 100LL|ASTM D910 and DEF STAN 91-90 | EU, Asia–Pacific, North and South America, Africa |
Repsol (Madrid, Spain) | 100LL|ASTM D910 | EU, Asia–Pacific, North and South America, Africa |
Swift Fuels (West Lafayette, IN, USA) | UL94|ASTM D7547 | USA |
The Region | The Country | Consumption, kt/Year | Population, Million | Consumption per Capita | GDP, Billion USD | Production, kt/Year | GDP per Capita | Share in GDP, % |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
North America | USA | 507 | 335.16 | 1.52 | 24,462 | 468 | 73.0 | 0.0046 |
Canada | 27 | 40.2 | 0.67 | 2273 | 36 | 56.5 | 0.0038 | |
Mexico | 18 | 129.04 | 0.14 | 2742 | 0 | 21.3 | - | |
South America | Brazil | 27 | 203.06 | 0.13 | 3837 | 2 | 18.9 | 0.0002 |
Colombia | 10 | 52.26 | 0.19 | 1052 | 11 | 20.1 | 0.0031 | |
Argentina | 5 | 46.05 | 0.11 | 1225 | 0 | 26.6 | - | |
Europe | France | 20 | 68.128 | 0.30 | 3769 | 25 | 55.3 | 0.0018 |
United Kingdom | 12 | 67.026 | 0.18 | 3656 | 0 | 54.5 | - | |
Germany | 4 | 84.358 | 0.05 | 5309 | 0 | 62.9 | - | |
Poland | 5 | 37.726 | 0.12 | 1625 | 32 | 43.1 | 0.0054 | |
Netherlands | 1 | 17.886 | 0.07 | 1231 | 63 | 68.8 | 0.0139 | |
CIS | Russia | 10 | 146.424 | 0.07 | 5326 | 9 | 36.4 | 0.0005 |
Kazakhstan | 6 | 19.854 | 0.30 | 604 | 6 | 30.4 | 0.0027 | |
Uzbekistan | 1 | 36.197 | 0.03 | 339 | 1 | 9.4 | 0.0008 | |
Asia–Pacific | Australia | 43 | 26.659 | 1.61 | 1626 | 39 | 61.0 | 0.0044 |
New Zealand | 7 | 5.199 | 1.35 | 237 | 0 | 45.6 | - | |
Republic of Korea | 1 | 51.439 | 0.02 | 2585 | 13 | 50.3 | 0.0008 | |
Africa | Ghana | 7 | 30.832 | 0.23 | 196 | 0 | 6.4 | - |
Gabon | 19 | 2.233 | 8.51 | 35 | 0 | 15.7 | - | |
Guinea | 13 | 13.261 | 0.98 | 39 | 0 | 2.9 | - | |
Mali | 5 | 23.293 | 0.21 | 51 | 0 | 2.2 | - |
Indicator | UL91 | UL94 | 100LL | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|
Airplanes, pcs. | 8149 | 9533 | 19,511 | 19,511 |
Helicopters, pcs. | 3383 | 3383 | 5688 | 5688 |
Total, pcs. | 11,532 | 12,916 | 25,199 | 25,199 |
Scope among airplanes % | 41.8 | 48.9 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Scope among helicopters % | 59.5 | 59.5 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Scope among all aircraft, % | 45.8 | 51.3 | 100.0 | 100.0 |
Airplanes, pcs. | 8149 | 9533 | 19,511 | 19,511 |
Property | Limit | TR TS 013/2011 | 100VLL ASTM D910 | UL91 ASTM D7547 | UL91 DEF STAN 91-090 | UL94 ASTM D7547 | UL102 ASTM D7719 | UL102 ASTM D7960 | 100M ASTM D8434 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Motor Octane Number | Min. | 91.0 | 99.6 | 91.0 | 91.0 | 94.0 | 102.2 | 102.5 | 99.6 |
Rated Octane Number | - | - | - | 95.0 | - | - | - | - | |
Performance number | Min. | 115 1 | 130 | - | - | - | - | - | 130 |
Lead content, g Pb/L | Max. | - | 0.45 | 0.013 | 0.013 | 0.013 | 0.013 | 0.013 | 0.013 |
Manganese content, g Mn/L | Min.–Max. | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 0.05–0.1 |
Density at 15 °C, kg/m3 | Min.–Max. | - | report | report | report | report | 790–825 | report | report |
Distillation: | |||||||||
Initial boiling point, °C | Min. | - | report | report | report | report | report | report | report |
10% is evaporated at temperature, °C | Max. | 82 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 |
40% is evaporated at temperature, °C | Min. | - | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 | 75 |
50% is evaporated at temperature, °C | Max. | 105 | 105 | 105 | 105 | 105 | 165 | 105 | 105 |
90% is evaporated at temperature, °C | Max. | 170 | 135 | 135 | 135 | 135 | 165 | 135 | 135 |
Final boiling point, °C | Max. | - | 170 | 170 | 170 | 170 | 180 | 210 | 170 |
Sum of 10 and 50% evaporated, °C | Min. | - | 135 | 135 | 135 | 135 | 135 | 135 | 135 |
Recovery, % vol. | Min. | - | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 | 97 |
Residue, % vol. | Max. | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 |
Loss, % vol. | Max. | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 | 1.5 |
Vapor pressure, kPa | Min.–Max. | 29.3–49.0 | 38.0–49.0 | 38.0–49.0 | 38.0–49.0 | 38.0–49.0 | 38.0–49.0 | 38.0–49.0 | 38.0–49.0 |
Freezing point, °C | Max. | −60 | −58 | −58 | −58 | −58 | −58 | report | −58 |
Sulfur content, % by mass | Max. | 0.03 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.05 |
Net heat of combustion, kJ/kg | Min. | - | 43.5 | 43.5 | 43.5 | 43.5 | 41.5 | 42 | 43.5 |
Corrosion of copper strip, 2 h at 100 °C | Max. | - | No. 1 | No. 1 | No. 1 | No. 1 | No 1 | No 1 | No 1 |
Oxidation stability, potential gum mg/100 mL | Max | - | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 | 6 |
residue | Max | - | - | 3 | 2 | 3 | - | - | - |
Total gum, mg/100 mL | Max. | 3 | - | - | - | - | - | 1 | - |
Mechanical impurities and water content | Max | absence | - | absence | - | absence | - | - | - |
Water reaction, volume change, mL | Max. | - | ±2 | ±2 | ±2 | ±2 | ±2 | ±2 | ±2 |
Electrical conductivity, pSm/m 3 | Min.–Max. | - | 50–450 | 50–450 | 50–600 | 50–450 | 50–450 | 50–450 | 50–450 |
Color | - | Green 2 | - | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Content of aromatic hydrocarbons, % wt. | Min. | - | - | - | - | - | 70 | - | - |
Benzene content, % wt. | Max. | - | - | - | - | - | 0.1 | - | - |
Component | Concentration, % wt. |
---|---|
Alkylate | up to 70 |
Isomerate and isopentane fraction | 10–20 |
Toluene | 10–25 |
Isooctane | up to 90 |
TEL | up to 0.19 |
Antioxidant, mg/kg, max. | 16 |
Dye, mg/kg, max | 2.7 |
Component | CRC [73] | CRC [73] | CRC [73] | D7960 [68] | D7960 [68] | D7719 [69] | D7719 [69] | WK69284 [70] | WK69284 [70] |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Alkylate | - | - | - | - | - | - | - | 74.5 | 77.1 |
Aviation Alkylate | - | 4.02 | - | 13.0 | 12.0 | - | - | - | - |
Technical purity iso-octane | 42.51 | 39.98 | 46.98 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Toluene | 25.01 | 25.00 | 25.01 | 35.0 | 45.0 | - | - | 11.5 | 8.9 |
ETBE | 29.98 | 29.79 | 24.99 | - | - | - | - | - | - |
Iso-octane 99% | 26.0 | 12.0 | 33.0 | 13.0 | - | - | |||
Isopentane | 20.0 | 21.0 | 10.0 | 10.0 | 9.6 | 12.9 | |||
Butane | - | - | 2 | 2 | 4.4 | 1.1 | |||
Isobutanol | - | 5.0 | - | - | - | - | |||
Mesitylene | - | 55.0 | 75.0 | - | - | ||||
Meta-toluidine | 2.50 | 1.03 | 3.02 | 6.0 | - | - | - | - | - |
Aniline | 5.0 | - | - | - | - | ||||
MMT (mg Mn/L) | 71.7 | 125 | |||||||
Test results | |||||||||
Motor Octane Number | 101.0 | 99.8 | 101.2 | 101.0 | 103.7 | 99.8 | 101.3 | 99.8 | 100.2 |
Performance number | 131.2 | 146.1 | 152.5 | - | - | - | - | 133.3 | 131.5 |
Density at 15 °C, kg/m3 | 765.1 | 760.2 | 764.0 | 766.0 | 779.0 | 773.1 | 815.4 | 708.1 | 702.6 |
Fraction composition: Initial boiling point, °C | 81.0 | 79.5 | 82.5 | - | - | - | - | 36.0 | 37.0 |
10% is evaporated at temperature, °C | 89.5 | 88.5 | 90.0 | 63.3 | 65.5 | - | - | 68.0 | 68.5 |
40% is evaporated at temperature, °C | 93.5 | 93.0 | 94.5 | 101.6 | 101.4 | - | - | 95.0 | 95.5 |
50% is evaporated at temperature, °C | 95.0 | 94.5 | 96.5 | 103.9 | 104.0 | - | - | 97.0 | 98.0 |
90% is evaporated at temperature, °C | 112.5 | 109.5 | 113.5 | 120.4 | 115.5 | - | - | 98.5 | 103.0 |
Final boiling point, °C | 191.5 | 178.0 | 189.5 | 196.9 | 179.0 | - | - | 116.5 | 138.0 |
Sum of 10 and 50% evaporated, °C | 184.5 | 183.0 | 186.5 | 167.2 | 169.5 | - | - | 165.5 | 166.5 |
Recovery, % vol. | 99.0 | 98.9 | 98.5 | - | - | - | - | 98.5 | 98.5 |
Residue, % vol. | 0.9 | 1.0 | 0.8 | - | - | - | - | 0.7 | 0.9 |
Loss, % vol. | 0.1 | 0.1 | 0.7 | - | - | - | - | 0.8 | 0.6 |
Vapor pressure, kPa | 17.4 | 18.7 | 16.6 | 42.5 | 44.1 | - | - | 47.8 | 41.2 |
Freezing point, °C | <−70 | −41 | −47 | −70 | −65.5 | - | - | <−70 | <−78 |
Net heat of combustion, MJ/kg | 40.61 | 40.78 | 40.96 | 42.5 | 42.13 | 42.40 | 41.70 | 43.8 | 44.0 |
Oxidation stability (5 h aging): | |||||||||
potential gum, mg/100 cm3 | 2 | 3 | 4 | - | - | - | - | 2 | 2 |
residue, mg/100 cm3 | <0.1 | 0.3 | <0.1 | - | - | - | - | 0.3 | 0 |
Water reaction, volume change, cm3 | 0 | 0 | 0 | - | - | - | - | 0 | 0 |
Component | UL102 ASTM D7960 | UL102 ASTM D7719 | UL100 ASTM WK69284 |
---|---|---|---|
Alkylate | 15–30 | 0–5 | 50–85 |
Technical purity iso-octane | 15–30 | 0–15 | - |
Isomerate C5–C6 | 15–30 | - | - |
Isopentane fraction | 15–30 | 10–20 | 0–15 |
Aromatic hydrocarbons | 35–55 | 58–88 | 0–20 |
Butane | - | 0–2 | 0–5 |
Aromatic amines | 2–10 | - | - |
Oxygenates | 4–10 | - | - |
MMT | - | - | up to 125 mg Mn/L |
TOTAL | 100 | 100 | 100 |
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Ershov, M.A.; Klimov, N.A.; Savelenko, V.D.; Makhova, U.A.; Burov, N.O.; Karpunin-Ozherovskiy, E.V.; Aleksanyan, D.R.; Donskaya, E.S.; Mukhina, D.Y.; Kapustin, V.M.; et al. An Overview of the Global Market, Fleet, and Components in the Field of Aviation Gasoline. Aerospace 2023, 10, 863. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10100863
Ershov MA, Klimov NA, Savelenko VD, Makhova UA, Burov NO, Karpunin-Ozherovskiy EV, Aleksanyan DR, Donskaya ES, Mukhina DY, Kapustin VM, et al. An Overview of the Global Market, Fleet, and Components in the Field of Aviation Gasoline. Aerospace. 2023; 10(10):863. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10100863
Chicago/Turabian StyleErshov, Mikhail A., Nikita A. Klimov, Vsevolod D. Savelenko, Ulyana A. Makhova, Nikita O. Burov, Egor V. Karpunin-Ozherovskiy, David R. Aleksanyan, Elena S. Donskaya, Daria Y. Mukhina, Vladimir M. Kapustin, and et al. 2023. "An Overview of the Global Market, Fleet, and Components in the Field of Aviation Gasoline" Aerospace 10, no. 10: 863. https://doi.org/10.3390/aerospace10100863