Warming Scenarios and Phytophthora cinnamomi Infection in Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.)
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Warming Scenarios in Chestnut
2.2. Warming Scenarios and Phytophthora cinnamomi Infection in Chestnut
3. Discussion
3.1. Effects of Temperature Increase in Chestnut
3.2. Phenolic Profile of Chestnut Seedlings after Infection by Pc
3.3. Enhanced Chestnut Resistance to Phytophthora cinnamomi after High Ambient Temperature
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Plant Material
4.2. Treatments and Experimental Design
4.3. Inoculation of Phytophthora cinnamomi and Mortality Assessment
4.4. Plant Measurements and Sampling
4.5. Non-Targeted Phenolic Compound Profiling
4.6. Statistical Analysis
5. Conclusions
- Chestnut seedlings exposed to high ambient temperature (35 °C) showed the highest vigour in plant growth, fine root biomass and dynamic response of phenolic compounds to biotic stress. Plant mortality induced by Pc was 20% lower in chestnuts previously exposed to high ambient temperature (for 30 days) than in chestnuts previously exposed to ambient temperature. This result is encouraging for the future persistence of chestnut in the Mediterranean area, where temperatures are increasing and the presence of Pc is becoming more frequent.
- Two 45 °C heat waves for three days did not alter plant growth, fine root biomass or chestnut’s susceptibility to Pc. This suggests the good adaptation of chestnut to heat waves in the absence of water limitation.
- Pc was able to alter the physiology of C. sativa plants in response to temperature by homogenising the values of gas exchange parameters in leaves.
- In response to heat, changes in the phenolic compound profiles of chestnut plants exposed to high ambient temperature and heat waves were similar. However, during recovery, most phenolic compounds of plants exposed to high ambient temperature remained low, but, in plants subjected to heat waves, they increased. Changes in compounds were greater in leaves than in roots.
- Three phenolic compounds (ethyl gallate in leaves, 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid in roots and coniferyl aldehyde in roots) showed significant variations in chestnut in response to Pc infection. Five additional phenolic compounds showed different changes in their content in response to Pc and the scenario that plants were exposed to before inoculation.
- Variation was observed in plasticity at the family level of several phenolic compounds in response to altered warming scenarios. This variation would be an opportunity for C. sativa to respond and probably adapt to global warming.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Class | Subclass | Leaf | Root |
---|---|---|---|
Phenols | Hydroxybenzoic acids | Ethyl gallate | Hydroxybenzoic acid |
Ellagic acid acetyl-xyloside | Gallic acid | ||
Ellagic acid | Ellagic acid | ||
Hydroxycinnamic acid | 3-feruloylquinic acid | ||
Hydroxyphenylacetic acid | 4-hydroxyphenylacetic acid | ||
Lignans | Lariciresinol | ||
Flavonoids | Flavanols | Procyanidin | |
Catechin | |||
Flavonols | Miquelianin (quercetin 3-O-glucuronide) | Quercetin 3-O-galactoside | |
Quercetin 3-O-rutinoside | Kaempferol-3-O-(6″ acetyl) glucoside 7-O rhamnoside | ||
Quercetin 3-O-rhamnoside | |||
Quercetin 3-O-galactoside | |||
Other polyphenols | Hydroxytyrosol | Tyrosol | |
Hydroxytyrosol acetate | Coniferyl aldehyde (4-hydroxy-3-methoxycinnamaldehyde) |
Leaf | Root | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Effects | Df | Ethyl Gallate | Ellagic Acid Acetyl-xyloside | Ellagic Acid | Lariciresinol | Procyanidin | Catechin | Quercetin 3-O-glucuronide | Hydroxytyrosol Acetate | Ellagic Acid | Hydroxybenzoic Acid | Coniferyl Aldehyde |
Scenario [S] | 2 | 0.012 | 0.004 | 0.006 | 0.019 | 0.001 | 0.002 | 0.009 | 0.039 | 0.015 | <0.001 | <0.001 |
Mother tree [M] | 1 | * | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | 0.034 | ns | ns | ns | 0.007 |
Time [T] | 1 | 0.012 | 0.022 | ns | ns | 0.035 | ns | ns | 0.014 | ns | ns | ns |
S × M | 2 | * | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | 0.007 | ns | ns | ns | ns |
S × T | 2 | 0.029 | 0.037 | * | ns | 0.006 | ns | <0.001 | 0.015 | 0.002 | 0.002 | 0.022 |
M × T | 1 | * | ns | ns | ns | 0.046 | ns | ns | ns | * | ns | ns |
S × M × T | 2 | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | 0.005 | 0.005 | 0.022 |
Seed weight (g) | 1 | 0.028 | ns | ns | ns | 0.014 | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns |
Time to emerge (d) | 1 | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | 0.017 | 0.017 | ns | ns | ns |
Plant height (cm) | 1 | 0.021 | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns |
Non-Infected Plants | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Day 0 | Day 10 | ||||
Organ | Compound | High Ambient Temperature | Heat Wave Events | High Ambient Temperature | Heat Wave Events |
Leaf | Ethyl gallate (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ns | ns | ns | ↑↑ |
Ellagic acid acetyl-xyloside (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ↓↓ | ↓↓ | ↓↓ | ns | |
Lariciresinol (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ↓ | ↓ | ↓↓ | ns | |
Procyanidin (mg procyanidin/g DW) | ns | ns | ↓↓ | ↑↑ | |
Catechin (mg catechin/g DW) | ↓↓ | ns | ↓↓ | ns | |
Miquelianin (quercetin 3-O-glucuronide) (mg quercetin/g DW) | ns | ns | ns | ↑↑ | |
Hydroxytyrosol acetate (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ↓↓ | ↓↓ | ns | ↑ | |
Ellagic acid (mg ellagic acid/g DW) | ns | ns | ns | ↑↑ | |
Root | Ellagic acid (mg ellagic acid/g DW) | ns | ns | ↑↑ | ns |
Hydroxybenzoic acid (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ns | ns | ↓↓ | ↓↓ | |
Coniferyl aldehyde (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ns | ns | ↓↓ | ns |
Leaf | Root | ||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Effect | Df | Ethyl Gallate | Ellagic Acid | 3-feruloylquinic Acid | Miquelianin | Hydroxytyrosol Acetate | Hydroxybenzoic Acid | 4-hydroxyphenylacetic Acid | Coniferyl Aldehyde |
Phytophthora [Pc] | 1 | 0.032 | ns | ns | ns | ns | * | 0.006 | 0.014 |
Scenario [S] | 2 | 0.018 | ns | 0.038 | 0.015 | <0.001 | <0.001 | 0.009 | <0.001 |
Mother tree [M] | 1 | ns | ns | ns | * | ns | ns | ns | 0.031 |
Pc × S | 2 | 0.016 | 0.014 | 0.044 | 0.005 | <0.001 | 0.003 | * | <0.001 |
Pc × M | 1 | ns | ns | ns | 0.037 | 0.015 | ns | ns | ns |
S × M | 2 | ns | ns | ns | ns | <0.001 | ns | ns | ns |
Pc × S × M | 2 | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | 0.031 | ns | * |
Seed weight (g) | 1 | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns |
Time to emerge (d) | 1 | ns | ns | * | ns | 0.002 | ns | ns | ns |
Plant height (cm) | 1 | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | ns | * |
Pc-Infected Plants (Day 10) | |||
---|---|---|---|
Organ | Compound | High Ambient Temperature + Pc | Heat Wave Events+ Pc |
Leaf | Ethyl gallate (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ns | ns |
Ellagic acid (mg ellagic acid/g DW) | ns | ns | |
3-Feruloylquinic acid (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ↑↑ | ↑ | |
Miquelianin (quercetin 3-O-glucuronide) (mg quercetin/g DW) | ↑↑ | ns | |
Hydroxytyrosol acetate (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ↓↓ | ↓↓ | |
Root | Hydroxybenzoic acid (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ns | ↑ |
4-Hydroxyphenylacetic acid (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ns | ns | |
Coniferyl aldehyde (mg gallic acid/g DW) | ↓↓ | ns |
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Dorado, F.J.; Alías, J.C.; Chaves, N.; Solla, A. Warming Scenarios and Phytophthora cinnamomi Infection in Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.). Plants 2023, 12, 556. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12030556
Dorado FJ, Alías JC, Chaves N, Solla A. Warming Scenarios and Phytophthora cinnamomi Infection in Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.). Plants. 2023; 12(3):556. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12030556
Chicago/Turabian StyleDorado, F. Javier, Juan Carlos Alías, Natividad Chaves, and Alejandro Solla. 2023. "Warming Scenarios and Phytophthora cinnamomi Infection in Chestnut (Castanea sativa Mill.)" Plants 12, no. 3: 556. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12030556