Genebanks at Risk: Hazard Assessment and Risk Management of National and International Genebanks
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Objectives and Methodology
- Developing a risk analysis and risk management framework suitable for genebanks;
- Applying this framework to a selected, representative sample of the most important germplasm holdings worldwide.
2.1. Risk Analysis and Risk Management Framework
- Natural hazards (exogenous risks);
- Political risks (exogenous risks);
- Financial risks (exo- and endogenous risks).
2.2. Methodology for the Selection of Genebanks
- Only state-managed and publicly funded national genebanks were included in the sample.
- The selection of national genebanks was performed via the identification of the most important agricultural countries using their gross production value for crops (GPV) and the cropping area. The latter was based on two FAO statistics: (1) the total area harvested and (2) the area of land used for agriculture. This approach followed the underlying rationale that a country that is an important agricultural producer is likely to possess a well-established agricultural (research) infrastructure, including facilities for the conservation of plant genetic resources. The first criterium, the GPV, reflects the economic value of the national agricultural sector, while the cropping area refers to the spatial importance of agriculture. The data were accessed via FAOSTAT [18]. Thirty-six countries were selected.
- After selection of the countries, the most important ex situ holdings for PGRFA at the national level had to be identified. For this step, the WIEWS database, the second report on The State of the World’s Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, and relevant country reports were consulted, and an additional web research was conducted, among others, to confirm that the sample comprised only state-managed genebanks. In countries with a decentralized conservation system, more than one location was included in the sample.
3. Hazard Assessment of Genebanks
3.1. Natural Hazards
- Geological hazards: earthquake, volcano;
- Hydrological hazards: tsunami, storm surge, river, and flash flood;
- Meteorological hazards: tropical cyclone, extratropical storm, tornado, hailstorm, and lightning;
- Climatological hazards: wildfire.
3.2. Political Risks
3.3. Financial Risks
- National genebanks in developing countries;
- National genebanks in emerging economies and some developed countries with decentralized structures (decentralized structures seem to be more vulnerable, as their funding often comes from different sources, e.g., besides central, also regional governments) and weak national coordination;
- International CGIAR genebanks;
- National genebanks in developed countries with centralized management or decentralized structures with strong national coordination.
4. Risk Management at Genebanks
4.1. Specific Risk Prevention and Mitigation Strategies for Genebanks
- Duplication of field collections at another location (not exposed to the similar risks as the original field genebank);
- Duplication of field genebank accessions under alternative conservation methods, such as in vitro conservation and cryopreservation.
- The costs for setting up and introducing material to in vitro and cryopreservation are considerably higher than for field genebanks. However, in the case of cryopreservation, once the system is established, its running costs are relatively low [52]. (Note that in vitro conservation is not suitable for mid-term and long-term conservation. But in vitro is important in connection with cryopreservation, as the plant tissue material first has to be prepared in vitro before it can be stored in liquid nitrogen [39].)
4.2. Risk Transfer Strategies
- Natural hazards will increase in frequency and intensity due to climate change, augmenting the exposure of genebanks and other infrastructure [57].
- Financial constraints of states and decreasing political support for PGR conservation [6]; with the recent increase in interest rates in important economies like the USA and Europe, governmental budget limitations are likely to become more important while financing debts (e.g., as necessary in the aftermath of disasters) will probably become more difficult in future.
- Buildings and storage rooms;
- Technical facilities and equipment (e.g., refrigerated storage facilities, control units, alarm systems, laboratory);
- Germplasm collections.
- Replacement value: In this approach, the cost to replace and rehabilitate any collection lost is determined. In the case of accessions, a replacement is only possible if the accessions are stored as safety duplicates elsewhere and are accessible and viable. Such a replacement exercise was undertaken in the case of the CGIAR genebank ICARDA in Aleppo, whose collections have been restored in Morocco and Lebanon since 2016 using backed-up accessions at other genebanks and SGSV [4,5]. The costs of this operation are, however, not publicly available at present. Another reference is the Dutch genebank, where replacement costs have been recently estimated at €25 to €30 million overall [35]. This would result in a value of €1040 to €1250 per accession. As replacement operations are complex and costly, the respective figures are on the high side.
- Costs of conserving accessions: Using the costs of conserving accessions as an approximation for estimating the value of germplasm collections is an indirect approach. The advantage is that costs are relatively easy to establish [61]. Thereby, the costs of conservation in perpetuity should be used, as they focus on the long-term preservation of plant genetic material. As conservation costs are reasonable, this approach results in a relatively low level of valuation. Koo et al. (2003) [62] also used this approach and collected crop-specific in perpetuity costs at five international CGIAR genebanks. These data—even though dating back to the late 1990s and early 2000s—are the best available. Table 4 compiles the data of Koo et al. (2003) [62] and derives from these present values. These authors worked with different interest rates (2%, 4%, and 6%), which have a considerable impact on the value estimation (cf. Table 4).
- The geographical scope of the fund;
- The assets to be covered;
- Value of the respective assets (as described for insurance solutions);
- The perils covered;
- Size and capacity of the fund;
- Financing of the fund: e.g., either through fees/premiums paid by the participating genebanks, deposits of donors (state or private), or a mixture of both.
5. Findings and Conclusions
- The natural hazard exposure analysis for a sample of 80 international, regional, and national genebanks, covering 65% of the world’s accessions, shows that risk exposure is highly location-specific and varies considerably between the analysed genebanks. Overall, 35 genebanks (44% of the sampled institutions) show a low to medium risk, while 17 genebanks (21%) present a high and 28 (35%) an extreme risk. Most of the extremely exposed genebanks are located in the Asia-Pacific region (Philippines, Fiji, Taiwan, Japan, and Bangladesh) as well as in South America (Peru) and Europe (UK, Germany, and Poland) (see Appendix B and Table A3). On the other hand, genebanks in Africa tend to have relatively low exposure to natural hazards. Among the international and regional genebanks, the most exposed are CePaCT in Fiji, WorldVeg in Taiwan, IRRI in the Philippines, and CIP in Peru. In contrast, SGSV, the global backup storage facility of safety duplicates, shows a relatively low risk profile, being only exposed to extratropical storms and rising temperatures affecting the permafrost. As the storage rooms are located underground, the vulnerability of the facility towards storm can be assessed as very low.These findings entail the following consequences for risk management:
- A location- and institution-specific risk assessment is indispensable to define and carry out appropriate risk prevention methods using two main strategies: (1) adequate infrastructural measures like natural hazard-resistant building codes, storage facilities at higher levels (flood prevention), emergency backup generators, and alarm systems; and (2) safety duplication of accessions at another location. Both strategies can be implemented without major obstacles in the conservation of orthodox species but are more complicated when conserving clonal and recalcitrant species in field genebanks.
- Risk transfer solutions like insurance coverages and funds, at present hardly implemented at genebanks, should be considered when developing holistic risk management strategies of genebanks. An important step in this direction was taken by the Global Crop Diversity Trust with the set-up of the Emergency Reserve Fund in 2021. Prices of these solutions vary significantly in line with the site-specific risk exposure.
- Vulnerability is very site-specific, depending mainly on the quality of infrastructure and risk prevention measures in place. Furthermore, it differs according to the specific conservation methods. Conservation in seed genebanks is the most resilient method compared to in vitro and cryopreservation, as the latter ones imply high technical and technological requirements. Field genebanks have a distinct risk profile and have, among the common conservation methods, the highest vulnerability with respect to natural hazards as well as pest and disease incidences.
- Assessing the exposure to political risks is challenging due to the complex nature of political risks. Using the two international indicators, the WGI by the World Bank and FSI by The Fund for Peace, this study identified considerable differences in the political stability of countries. Among the most exposed countries of the sample, predominantly located in Africa and Asia, are countries hosting important international genebanks. From a risk management perspective, it would be essential to establish a centralized monitoring system for political risks (e.g., at FAO or the Crop Trust) to be able to take safety measures proactively and on time.
- The insufficient level of financing has widely been acknowledged as a key limiting factor for genebanks. Yet, information on the actual and required budget per genebank, as well as on the nature and provenance of funds, is scarce and difficult to obtain. More research is necessary; it is recommended to include in the FAO country reports a section about necessary financial resources. In addition, it can be noted that the international genebanks have—in particular through the professional work of the Crop Trust establishing the Crop Diversity Endowment Fund—a stable financial backbone. In contrast, the situation at national genebanks is very diverse. It depends on the organizational structure (centralized vs. decentralized), the overall state budget, and the priority-setting of national governments.
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Status | Country | WIEWS Code | Institution Name | Collection Size |
---|---|---|---|---|
International genebanks | Belgium | BEL084 | Bioversity International Musa Germplasm Transit Centre (ITA) | 1625 |
Côte d’Ivoire | CIV033 | Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice) | 21,815 | |
Colombia | COL003 | Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT) | 66,599 | |
Ethiopia | ETH013 | International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) | 18,641 | |
India | IND002 | International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) | 128,691 | |
Kenya | KEN056 | Genetic Resources Unit (ICRAF) | 15,157 | |
Lebanon | LBN002 | International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA, location Lebanon)) | 151,858 | |
Morocco | MARNA 1 | International Centre for Agricultural Research in Dry Areas (ICARDA, location Morocco) | n.a. 2 | |
Mexico | MEX002 | Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT) | 210,851 | |
Nigeria | NGA039 | International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) | 36,531 | |
Norway | NOR051 | Svalbard Global Seed Vault (SGSV) | n.a. 3 | |
Peru | PER001 | Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) | 18,066 | |
Philippines | PHL001 | International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) | 132,141 | |
Taiwan, Province of China | TWN001 | World Vegetable Center (WorldVeg) | 59,954 | |
Regional genebanks | United Arab Emirates | ARE003 | International Center for Biosaline Agriculture (ICBA) | 14,524 |
Costa Rica | CRI085/CRI134/CRI142 | Centro Agronómico Tropical de Investigación y Enseñanza (CATIE) | 10,972 | |
Fiji | FJI049 | Centre for Pacific Crops and Trees (CePaCT) | 2158 | |
Kenya | KENNA 1 | ICRISAT regional genebank | n.a. 2 | |
Niger | NER047 | ICRISAT regional genebank | n.a. 2 | |
Sweden | SWE054 | Nordic Genetic Resource Center (NORDGEN) | 33,272 | |
Zambia | ZMB030 | SADC Plant Genetic Resources Centre (SRGB) | 11,326 | |
Zimbabwe | ZWENA 1 | ICRISAT regional genebank | n.a. 2 |
Continent | Country Code | Country | WIEWS Code | No. of Selected Genebanks | Collection Size |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Africa | EGY | Egypt | EGY087 | 1 | 14,610 |
ETH | Ethiopia | ETH085 | 1 | 73,164 | |
GHA | Ghana | GHA091 | 1 | 418 | |
KEN | Kenya | KEN212 | 1 | 51,405 | |
MAR | Morocco | MAR088 | 1 | 69,628 | |
NGA | Nigeria | NGA010 | 1 | 7692 | |
ZAF | South Africa | TZA016 | 1 | 6275 | |
TZA | United Republic of Tanzania | ZAF062/ZAF064 | 1 | 7279 | |
Total Africa | 8 | 230,471 | |||
Americas | ARG | Argentina | ARG1342, ARG1350 | 2 | 5025 |
BRA | Brazil | BRA003 | 1 | 107,537 | |
CAN | Canada | CAN004, CAN025, CAN064 | 3 | 111,157 | |
COL | Colombia | COL017 | 1 | 15,776 | |
MEX | Mexico | MEX208 | 1 | 27,100 | |
PER | Peru | PER014, PER066 | 2 | 6542 | |
USA | United States of America | USA016, USA020, USA022, USA029, USA033, USA970 | 6 | 461,758 | |
Total Americas | 16 | 734,895 | |||
Asia | BGD | Bangladesh | BGD001, BGD002, BGD003 | 3 | 22,961 |
CHN | China | CHN001, CHNNA 1 | 2 | 351,332 * | |
IND | India | IDN179 | 1 | 410,565 | |
IDN | Indonesia | IND001 | 1 | 4594 | |
JPN | Japan | JPN183 | 1 | 224,353 | |
KOR | Republic of Korea | KOR046 | 1 | 152,272 * | |
NPL | Nepal | NPL069 | 1 | 6470 | |
PAK | Pakistan | PAK001 | 1 | 33,003 | |
PHL | Philippines | PHL129, PHL158 | 2 | 6875 | |
THA | Thailand | THA300 | 1 | 31,887 | |
TUR | Türkiye | TUR001, TUR034 | 2 | 38,961 | |
Total Asia | 16 | 1,283,273 | |||
Europe | DEU | Germany | DEU146, DEU159, DEU271 | 3 | 150,736 |
ESP | Spain | ESP004 | 1 | 20,826 | |
FRA | France | FRA040, FRA139 | 2 | 16,143 | |
GBR | United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland | GBR004, GBR006, GBR016, GBR140, GBR247 | 5 | 836,237 2 | |
ITA | Italy | ITA436 | 1 | 6962 | |
POL | Poland | POL003 | 1 | 76,751 | |
ROU | Romania | ROM007 | 1 | 16,428 | |
RUS | Russian Federation | RUS001 | 1 | 200,717 | |
UKR | Ukraine | UKR001 | 1 | 34,518 | |
Total Europe | 16 | 1,359,318 | |||
Oceania | AUS | Australia | AUS165, AUS167 | 2 | 249,056 |
Total | 58 | 3,857,013 |
Appendix B
WIEWS Code (If Available) | Status | Organization Acronym | Country | Earthquake | Volcano | Tsunami | Storm Surge | Riverflood | Flash Flood | Tropical Cyclone | Extratropical Storm | Tornado | Hailstorm | Lightning | Wildfire | Global risk Score | Global Risk Index | Risk Score Earthquake | Risk Index Earthquake | Risk Score Storm | Risk Index Storm | Risk Score Flood | Risk Index Flood |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BEL084 | int | ITC | Belgium | 1 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 11 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 3 |
CIV033 | int | AfricaRice | Côte d’Ivoire | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
COL003 | int | CIAT | Colombia | 3 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 42 | 4 | 37 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
ETH013 | int | ILRI | Ethiopia | 3 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 5 | 5 | −1 | 4 | 45 | 4 | 37 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 4 |
IND002 | int | ICRISAT | India | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | 0 | −1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 11 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 4 |
KEN056 | int | ICRAF | Kenya | 2 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 5 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | −1 | 3 | 18 | 2 | 11 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 |
LBN002 | int | ICARDA-LBN | Lebanon | 3 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 42 | 3 | 34 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 |
MARNA 1 | int | ICARDA-MAR | Morocco | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
MEX002 | int | CIMMYT | Mexico | 2 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | 0 | −1 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 21 | 2 | 11 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 4 |
NGA039 | int | IITA | Nigeria | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 |
NOR051 | int | SGSV | Norway | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | −999 | −1 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 2 |
PER001 | int | CIP | Peru | 4 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | −1 | 4 | 78 | 4 | 76 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
PHL001 | int | IRRI | Philippines | 2 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 5 | 4 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 112 | 3 | 18 | 4 | 87 | 2 | 6 |
TWN001 | int | WorldVeg | Taiwan, Province of China | 3 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | 5 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 139 | 3 | 34 | 4 | 100 | 1 | 3 |
ARE003 | reg | ICBA | United Arab Emirates | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 500 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 | 3 | 22 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 0 | 2 | 14 |
CRI134/CRI142/CRI085 | reg | CATIE | Costa Rica | 3 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 49 | 4 | 44 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
FJI049 | reg | CePaCT | Fiji | 3 | −1 | 500 | −1 | −999 | 2 | 5 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 142 | 4 | 39 | 4 | 100 | 1 | 2 |
KENNA 1 | reg | ICRISAT-Kenya | Kenya | 1 | 1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 4 |
NER047 | reg | ICRISAT-Niger | Niger | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
SWE054 | reg | NORDGEN | Sweden | 0 | −1 | −1 | 100 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 42 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 36 |
ZMB030 | reg | SRGB | Zambia | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 3 | 3 | 17 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 |
ZWENA 1 | reg | ICRISAT- Zimbabwe | Zimbabwe | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 |
ARG1342 | nat | BBC-INTA | Argentina | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 5 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 2 | 6 |
ARG1350 | nat | BGLACONSULTA | Argentina | 3 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 0 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 44 | 4 | 37 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 |
AUS165 | nat | AGG | Australia | 1 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
AUS167 | nat | APG | Australia | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | −1 | 2 | 12 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
BGD001 | nat | BJRI | Bangladesh | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 5 | 0 | −1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | −1 | 3 | 19 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 5 | 2 | 6 |
BGD002 | nat | BRRI | Bangladesh | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 100 | 4 | 0 | −1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 59 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 44 |
BGD003 | nat | BARI | Bangladesh | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 100 | 4 | 0 | −1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 59 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 44 |
BRA003 | nat | CENARGEN | Brazil | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
CAN004 | nat | PGRC | Canada | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 2 | −1 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 |
CAN025 | nat | CCGB | Canada | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 11 | 1 | 2 |
CAN064 | nat | CPGR | Canada | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 2 | −1 | 3 | 23 | 2 | 8 | 2 | 13 | 1 | 2 |
CHN001 | nat | NCGC | China | 3 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 5 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 3 | −1 | 4 | 44 | 3 | 34 | 1 | 4 | 2 | 6 |
CHNNA 1 | nat | / | China | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 |
COL017 | nat | AGROSAVIA | Colombia | 3 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 44 | 3 | 34 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 3 |
DEU146 | nat | IPK | Germany | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 100 | 2 | −1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 50 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 | 4 | 42 |
DEU159 | nat | IPK | Germany | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 2 |
DEU271 | nat | IPK | Germany | 0 | −1 | 0 | 100 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 47 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 8 | 4 | 36 |
EGY087 | nat | NGB | Egypt | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | −1 | 2 | 10 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
ESP004 | nat | INIA-CRF | Spain | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 3 |
ETH085 | nat | EBI | Ethiopia | 3 | 0 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 6 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 47 | 3 | 34 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 4 |
FRA040 | nat | INRAe- CLERMONT | France | 1 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 14 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 3 |
FRA139 | nat | INRAe- VASSAL | France | 1 | −1 | 0 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | 3 | 2 | 4 | 3 | −1 | 3 | 16 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 4 |
GBR004 | nat | RBG | UK | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 13 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 2 |
GBR006 | nat | HRIGRU | UK | 1 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 11 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 2 |
GBR016 | nat | IBERS-GRU | UK | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 100 | 3 | −1 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 53 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 8 | 4 | 43 |
GBR140 | nat | NASC | UK | 1 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 10 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 2 |
GBR247 | nat | / | UK | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 10 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 2 |
GHA091 | nat | PGRRI | Ghana | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 1 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 |
IDN179 | nat | ICABIOGRAD | Indonesia | 3 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 1 | 4 | 51 | 4 | 44 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 |
IND001 | nat | NBPGR | India | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 6 | −1 | −1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | −1 | 3 | 19 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 9 |
ITA436 | nat | IBBR | Italy | 1 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | −1 | 2 | 9 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 3 |
JPN183 | nat | NARO | Japan | 4 | 1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 120 | 4 | 77 | 4 | 39 | 1 | 3 |
KEN212 | nat | GeRRI | Kenya | 2 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 19 | 2 | 11 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 |
KOR046 | nat | NAC | Republic of Korea | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 37 | 2 | 8 | 3 | 24 | 1 | 4 |
MAR 088 | nat | INRA CRRAS | Morocco | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 |
MEX208 | nat | CNRG | Mexico | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | 0 | −1 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 2 | 3 | 18 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 3 |
NGA010 | nat | NACGRAB | Nigeria | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
NPL069 | nat | NAGRC | Nepal | 3 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 2 | 5 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 42 | 3 | 34 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 3 |
PAK001 | nat | PGRP | Pakistan | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 2 | 5 | 6 | −1 | 3 | 17 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 4 |
PER014 | nat | E.E.A. Illpa-Puno | Peru | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 5 | 3 | 1 | 3 | 16 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 4 |
PER066 | nat | UNA | Peru | 4 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | −1 | 4 | 78 | 4 | 76 | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
PHL129 | nat | IPB-NPGRL | Philippines | 2 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 100 | 5 | 4 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 1 | 4 | 152 | 3 | 18 | 4 | 87 | 4 | 46 |
PHL158 | nat | PhilRice | Philippines | 3 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 5 | 4 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 5 | 2 | 4 | 133 | 4 | 37 | 4 | 88 | 2 | 6 |
POL003 | nat | IHAR | Poland | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 100 | 2 | −1 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 1 | 4 | 49 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 42 |
ROM007 | nat | BRGV Suceava | Romania | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 3 | 17 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 3 |
RUS001 | nat | VIR | Russian Federation | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | −1 | 2 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 |
THA300 | nat | / | Thailand | 1 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 100 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 2 | 2 | 5 | 3 | 4 | 52 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 44 |
TUR001 | nat | AARI | Türkiye | 3 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 2 | 2 | 4 | 43 | 3 | 34 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 4 |
TUR034 | nat | FCCRI | Türkiye | 2 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 3 | −1 | 2 | 14 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 2 |
TZA016 | nat | NPGRC | United Republic of Tanzania | 1 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 5 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | −1 | 2 | 12 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 6 |
UKR001 | nat | IR | Ukraine | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 3 | −1 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 2 |
USA016 | nat | S9 | USA | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | 1 | 1 | 3 | 5 | 4 | −1 | 3 | 17 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 13 | 1 | 3 |
USA020 | nat | NC7 | USA | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | 1 | 4 | 6 | 4 | 1 | 3 | 21 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 15 | 1 | 4 |
USA022 | nat | W6 | USA | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 7 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
USA029 | nat | NSGC | USA | 1 | 1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 | 2 | 8 | 1 | 3 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 2 |
USA033 | nat | SOY | USA | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 4 | −1 | 3 | 16 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 12 | 1 | 3 |
USA970 | nat | DB NRRC | USA | 1 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 1 | 4 | 5 | 5 | 1 | 3 | 19 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 13 | 1 | 3 |
ZAF062/ZAF064 | nat | DALRRD/NPGRC | South Africa | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | 0 | 3 | 5 | 4 | −1 | 2 | 10 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 5 | 1 | 4 |
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WIEWS Institutional Code | Organization Acronym | Country | Earthquake 1 | Volcano | Tsunami | Storm Surge | Riverflood | Flash Flood | Tropical Cyclone | Extratropical Storm | Tornado | Hailstorm | Lightning | Wildfire |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
BEL084 | ITC | Belgium | 1 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 2 | 3 2 | 2 | 2 | 1 |
CIV033 | Africa Rice | Côte d’Ivoire | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 2 |
COL003 | CIAT | Colombia | 3 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 4 | 1 |
ETH013 | ILRI | Ethiopia | 3 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 5 | 5 | −1 |
IND002 | ICRISAT | India | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | 0 | −1 | 2 | 2 | 3 | 2 |
KEN056 | ICRAF | Kenya | 2 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 5 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 3 | 2 | −1 |
LBN002 | ICARDA | Lebanon | 3 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 0 | 2 | 4 | 2 | 3 |
MARNA | ICARDA | Morocco | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | 2 | −1 |
MEX002 | CIMMYT | Mexico | 2 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 4 | 0 | −1 | 1 | 5 | 4 | 1 |
NGA039 | IITA | Nigeria | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 3 |
PER001 | CIP | Peru | 4 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 2 | −1 | −1 | 1 | 1 | 1 | −1 |
PHL001 | IRRI | Philippines | 2 | 3 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 5 | 4 | −1 | 1 | 2 | 4 | 1 |
TWN001 | World Veg | Taiwan, Province of China | 3 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 3 | 5 | 0 | 1 | 2 | 2 | 2 |
NOR051 | SGSV | Norway | 0 | −1 | −1 | −1 | 0 | 1 | −1 | 3 | 1 | 1 | / | −1 |
Risk Source | Risk Control Measure |
---|---|
Natural hazards | Building codes, standards, and practices (e.g., resistance to earthquake, strong wind, and snow load). These are being regulated normally at the national level. |
Outage or malfunctioning of technical facilities | Alarm systems (e.g., for open doors, sudden changes in light, temperature, and humidity); early fire, gas, smoke, or water detection; backup equipment or additional rooms available and ready; essential spare parts in storage; qualified staff for repairs or external standby repair services |
Fire (ignition point inside the facility) | Detection and mitigation devices: Smoke and fire detection; sprinkler systems; fire extinguishers. Construction measures: fire walls; fire isolation doors; separated compartments; sufficient separation between buildings. Organizational aspects: coordination with external firefighting services like local fire brigades |
Fire (ignition point outside the facility, e.g., wildfires) | Fire breaks; fuel load control in the vicinity of the genebank |
Power supply cut-offs | Second power line, emergency power generator (for storage rooms, monitoring devices, essential lighting, etc.), lightning rods and deflectors |
Theft, vandalism, and terrorism | Alarm systems, locks, surveillance cameras, and sensors to impede the entry of unauthorized people (in addition to security surveillance) |
Cyber-attacks to IT 1 | High cybersecurity standards |
Natural Hazard | Risk Control Measures | Examples of Exposed Genebanks 1 |
---|---|---|
Earthquakes | Earthquake-proof infrastructure [26] |
|
Volcanoes | Strengthened roofs and walls, use of shutters on openings and non-flammable materials, fix buildings to foundation, etc. [29] |
|
Tsunami | Tsunami-resistant structures [30] |
|
Storm surge | Storm surge gates, flood barriers, floor plans for a quick water outflow, shelving above ground level [26,31] |
|
River flood | Flood barriers, dikes, spurs, etc., floor plans for a quick water outflow, shelving above ground level, water-proof ink and bags [26,32,33,34,35] |
|
Flash flood | Flood barriers, dikes, spurs, etc., floor plans for a quick water outflow, shelving above ground level [26,32,34] |
|
Tropical cyclone | Same as against storm surges and floods (e.g., embankment) [36,37], wind-resistant buildings [38], clearing of surroundings (e.g., cutting of trees in proximity to genebank) [39] |
|
Extratropical storm | Wind-resistant buildings, reinforcing/securing of roofs [40] |
|
Tornado | Wind-resistant buildings, safe rooms (e.g., for seed storage rooms), reinforcing/securing of roofs [41,42] |
|
Hailstorm | Hail-resistant roofs and windows [43] |
|
Lightning | Lightning rod [44] |
|
Wildfire | Fire breaks, non-combustible materials and fire-resistant structures, adequate vegetation [45,46] |
|
Crop Type | CGIAR Genebank | Size of Collection | Present Values at Different Interest Rates | Collection Value | |||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
2001 | 2020 | Reference Year 1 | 2021 2 | 2021 | |||||
[No. of Accessions] | 2% | 6% | 2% | 6% | 2% | 6% | |||
[US $ Per Accession] | [in Million US $] | ||||||||
Common Bean | CIAT | 31,400 | 32,347 | 47.1 | 12.9 | 76.8 | 21.0 | 2.484 | 0.680 |
Forages | CIAT | 24,184 | 22,694 | 83.7 | 22.9 | 136.5 | 37.3 | 3.097 | 0.847 |
Wheat * | CIMMYT | 154,912 | 146,505 | 22.7 | 6.3 | 42.4 | 11.8 | 6.208 | 1.734 |
Wheat ** | CIMMYT | see above | see above | 25.9 | 9.6 | 48.5 | 17.9 | 7.098 | 2.625 |
Maize * | CIMMYT | 25,086 | 32,243 | 151.5 | 32.3 | 283.2 | 60.4 | 9.132 | 1.946 |
Maize ** | CIMMYT | see above | see above | 260.2 | 141.0 | 486.5 | 263.6 | 15.686 | 8.500 |
Sorghum | ICRISAT | 36,721 | 42,352 | 47.4 | 14.3 | 81.1 | 24.5 | 3.434 | 1.038 |
Pearl Millet | ICRISAT | 21,392 | 24,373 | 56.1 | 15.2 | 95.9 | 25.9 | 2.336 | 0.632 |
Chickpea | ICRISAT | 17,250 | 20,764 | 47.8 | 14.4 | 81.8 | 24.6 | 1.699 | 0.510 |
Pigeonpea | ICRISAT | 13,544 | 13,783 | 58.7 | 15.4 | 100.3 | 26.4 | 1.383 | 0. 363 |
Groundnut | ICRISAT | 15,327 | 15,622 | 49.7 | 14.6 | 84.9 | 24.9 | 1.327 | 0.389 |
Rice, cultivated | IRRI | 94,564 | 125,899 | 25.1 | 6.3 | 42.9 | 10.8 | 5.397 | 1.358 |
Rice, wild | IRRI | 4568 | 5813 | 37.1 | 7.5 | 63.4 | 12.8 | 0.368 | 0.074 |
Crop Type | Costs in Perpetuity (2018) [€ per Accession] |
---|---|
Wheat | 13.00 |
Rye | 13.00 |
Soybean—open air | 11.98 |
Soybean—greenhouse | 40.77 |
Chickpea—open air | 12.26 |
Chickpea—greenhouse | 29.57 |
Cabbage | 41.88 |
Cauliflower | 35.76 |
Lettuce | 19.50 |
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Herbold, T.; Engels, J.M.M. Genebanks at Risk: Hazard Assessment and Risk Management of National and International Genebanks. Plants 2023, 12, 2874. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12152874
Herbold T, Engels JMM. Genebanks at Risk: Hazard Assessment and Risk Management of National and International Genebanks. Plants. 2023; 12(15):2874. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12152874
Chicago/Turabian StyleHerbold, Theresa, and Johannes M. M. Engels. 2023. "Genebanks at Risk: Hazard Assessment and Risk Management of National and International Genebanks" Plants 12, no. 15: 2874. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12152874