4.1. Study of Severe Shoot Trimming at Different Phenological Stages
Previous studies reported that removal of leaves on the upper part of the canopy by severe shoot trimming or removing apical leaves on the shoots during the post-veraison period is an effective canopy management practice used to slow the accumulation of sugars in the berries [
21,
22,
23]. Based on this assumption, we tested two different timings of severe shoot trimming during the ripening stage (when approximately 5% or 80% of the berries changed color; at approximately 8 or 14 Brix, respectively) in order to obtain more insight on the impact of the timing of this practice on the final berry composition. Additionally, we have included an early timing of severe shoot trimming, performed when the berries were four millimeters in diameter, at E-L phenological stage 29 according to Coombe et al. [
31]. The justification for applying such an early trimming was the possibility of its practical application. If this early trimming technique would be effective in reducing sugars in berries without negatively affecting phenolic composition, this practice would be rational to use in a wide-scale viticulture production because of the ease of its application.
The regrowth of lateral shoots was observed after conducting severe shoot trimming when berries were four mm in diameter (SEV-I), whereas no regrowth of laterals occurred on SEV-II and SEV-III after severe trimming in both seasons. These results for severe shoot trimming in the later phenological stages (SEV-II and SEV-III) confirm a permanent reduction of the leaf area in the current season, as previously reported by Tessarin et al. [
36].
The lack of the impact of SEV-II and SEV-III on yield components was expected, as in most studies, yield components were not affected if severe shoot trimming was applied after the onset veraison [
37,
38,
39]. Regarding the SEV-I treatment, we expected a reduction in final berry weight due to a significant decrease in total leaf area per vine in the early stages of berry growth. However, no significant differences were obtained (
Table 2.). Several studies on basal leaf removal at berry setting obtained a decrease in the final berry weight [
18,
40]. In these studies, the lower leaves were removed, which were photosynthetically fully functional at this phenological stage [
41], whereas in our study, the removal of upper leaves when berries had four mm in diameter in SEV-I treatment was not limiting for achieving a maximum berry weight. As reported by Kliewer and Dokoozlian [
42], for single-canopy training systems, the ideal leaf area/yield ratio for obtaining the largest berry weight and the maximum level of sugar and anthocyanins in the berry ranges from 0.8–1.2 m
2/kg. In our study, the values of leaf area/yield ratio values remained inside this range for all three severe shoot trimming treatments, therefore giving adequate conditions for uninterrupted berry development.
Even though severe trimming treatments performed in this research did not influence yield components, meteorological conditions during a vegetation period had a significant impact on berry and cluster weight. Greater values of these two variables were obtained in a rainy 2014 season, as high water availability during berry development promotes berry growth [
26].
Severe shoot trimming was an effective practice to decrease the rate of sugar accumulation in the berry throughout the maturation stage, and to reduce Brix in the grape juice at harvest. Such a reaction, which was a consequence of late source limitation and the resulting lower assimilate availability to the berries, was confirmed in several other studies on late source limitation, imposed by severe shoot trimming or late leaf removal [
21,
22,
23,
43,
44,
45]. In our study, the most effective treatments in this regard were SEV-I and SEV-II, which reduced the content of Brix compared to UC in both years. The reduction of the content of Brix in SEV-I treatment could be imposed by the significantly lower leaf area/yield ratio than in the control treatment. The SEV-III treatment, where the same practice was performed at late veraison (when 80% of the berries changed color) had a significant impact on the reduction of Brix only in the second year of research. Since a significant interaction of treatment × year was observed, we can assume that severe shoot trimming limits the accumulation of Brix only in years with higher precipitation levels, as in 2014 in our study. These results are in agreement with those presented by Herrera et al. [
26] who obtained similar results by investigating the effect of water deficit and severe shoot trimming on the accumulation of sugar in berries, and also with the findings of O’Brien et al. [
25], who did not obtain a significant decrease of grape sugar accumulation in the berry by apical leaf removal or by shoot trimming at veraison in a hot Australian climate. If we refer to 2013 as a more average year in terms of temperature and precipitation levels, we can deduce that if apical leaves are removed at late veraison (at approximately 14 Brix), the effect of this practice on the accumulation of Brix is less pronounced than if severe shoot trimming is performed at earlier stages of veraison (at approximately 8 Brix). This arises from the fact that at late veraison, the assimilation area is removed when a substantial portion of the final content of sugar is already accumulated in the berry.
On the other hand, during the rainy season of 2014, all severe shoot trimming treatments obtained a more pronounced decrease in sugars compared to UC than in the previous year. This indicates that a greater leaf area and a greater leaf area/yield ratio are of particular importance when the meteorological conditions during ripening are unfavorable.
The lack of influence of severe shoot trimming on titratable acidity and pH was obtained in several other studies [
23,
26,
36,
37], although in some cases, the increase of titratable acidity was observed [
45,
46], most probably as a consequence of delayed ripening.
Our results imply that if performing severe shoot trimming at an early stage of berry growth (SEV-I) or at the beginning of veraison (SEV-II), a reduced anthocyanin accumulation in berries is obtained. According to Bobeica et al. [
24], restricting the assimilation surface, reducing leaf area/yield ratio, and consequently limiting the availability of assimilates at early phenological stages could lead to the prioritizing of primary over the secondary metabolic pathway in berries. However, in our study, this hypothesis was not supported by the results of total phenolic content, which remained unchanged regardless of the phenological stage when severe shoot trimming was performed. The absence of change in the content of total phenolics was also observed in other studies on severe shoot trimming and late apical leaf removal [
19,
39,
43], which indicates a possible shift within the phenylpropanoid pathway in the conditions of limited assimilate availability.
Contrary to the results obtained for SEV-I and SEV-II, no significant reduction of the content of anthocyanins occurred if severe shoot trimming was imposed at 80% veraison (SEV-III), despite the fact that this treatment also had a lower leaf area/yield ratio at harvest than UC. Based on these results, it may be assumed that the timing of performance of severe shoot trimming has a major impact on anthocyanins accumulation in berries, and in order to avoid the decrease of anthocyanins concentration, the best stage to perform this technique is at late veraison, at approximately 14 Brix. Similarly, several other studies obtained the goal of sugar reduction without affecting the accumulation of anthocyanins if late source limitation was performed at late veraison [
23,
26,
37,
39], whereas in several cases, a reduction of anthocyanins was obtained if this technique was performed at the beginning veraison [
47] or earlier [
19,
36].
Photosynthetic active radiation in the cluster zone was higher for all the severely trimmed treatments in 2015 and for SEV-II and SEV-III treatment in comparison to UC, as the light entered in the cluster zone to a greater extent also from the upper part of the severely trimmed canopy. A possible impact of light exposure as a factor that could stimulate the accumulation of anthocyanins is questionable in the case of this study, as SEV-I and SEV-II resulted in a reduced concentration and per berry content of anthocyanins than UC, despite the greater light exposure of their clusters. Moreover, it can be assumed that a considerable accumulation of anthocyanins or their precursors in SEV-III treatment occurred prior to the severe trimming of shoots. These results are consistent with recent studies that have shown that solar radiation is not a major factor in anthocyanin synthesis [
48,
49].
4.2. Study of Severe Shoot Trimming Combined with Crop Size
Some interactive effects on berry composition were expected when severe shoot trimming at 80% veraison and its respective control (high canopy; HC) were combined with two different crop sizes per vine. More specifically, we expected that the effects of severe shoot trimming would be more expressed at higher crop sizes. Contrary to our expectations, the results showed that the interaction between these two factors is present only for total leaf area per shoot in the second season, whereas the independent effects of late severe shoot trimming and crop size on total vine leaf area, yield components, and berry composition were observed.
Although it may be expected that shoot thinned LCS treatment would result in more exposed clusters to the sunlight than HCS, no differences in fruit zone microclimate, characterized by canopy gaps, leaf layer number, and PAR were observed between these two treatments. The reason for such outcomes was a more intensive vegetative growth of shoots in LCS treatment compared to HCS (
Table 4), resulting in a greater leaf area per shoot in both seasons, a reaction already noted for a differing shoot number per vine [
42]. On the other side, a reduction of canopy density following shoot thinning may result if vines have medium to low vigor, where no compensation is obtained in the length of remaining shoots or the number and/or length of laterals [
50].
The effects of crop size on fruit composition differed in two investigated years. In 2015, when HCS had 18% greater yield than LCS, no significant impact of crop size on berry composition was achieved. On the other hand, in 2016, when HCS had a 29% greater yield than LCS, the lower content of Brix and total anthocyanins expressed both as concentration and per berry content were observed in HCS. Similar to our study, De Bei et al. [
29] found that shoot thinning does not improve berry composition when no considerable differences in yield are obtained with this practice. However, if a considerable difference in crop size among treatments is obtained by shoot thinning or cluster thinning, in most cases, the concurrent reduction of both sugar and anthocyanins is obtained with increased yield [
51,
52,
53,
54]. In the context of climate change and the associated problems with high sugar concentration in grape berries in warm seasons [
2], the practice of increasing yield may be appropriate to reduce the accumulation of sugar in berries, although it may not be convenient if a high intensity of grape and wine color is desired [
55].