Phytosanitary Interventions for Safe Global Germplasm Exchange and the Prevention of Transboundary Pest Spread: The Role of CGIAR Germplasm Health Units
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. International Germplasm Transfers for Food Security and Biodiversity Conservation
1.2. Pathogen and Pest Threats to International Germplasm Transfers
1.3. Transboundary Pest Risk to Germplasm Distribution and Premises for the Establishment of CGIAR Germplasm Health Programs
2. Historical Evolution of GHU and Its Core Functions
2.1. Development of Institutional Capacity for the Prevention of Transboundary Pest Spread through Germplasm
2.2. GHUs as CGIAR Gateway for Safe Germplasm Exchange
3. Procedures for Germplasm Health Testing and Safe International Transfers
3.1. Multistage Phytosanitary Controls for Pest Prevention
3.2. Criteria for Pest Monitoring
4. Germplasm Health Testing and Pest Elimination
4.1. True Seed Crops
4.1.1. Cereals
4.1.2. Grain and Oil Seed Legumes
4.2. Vegetatively Propagated Crops
4.3. Trees
4.4. Forages
5. GHU Support for CGIAR Programs
5.1. Enabling Safe Germplasm Transfers
5.2. Partnerships Enabling GHU Functions
5.3. GHUs in Capacity Development
6. Challenges and Opportunities
6.1. Evaluation and Reevaluation of Germplasm Health
6.2. Variable Standards and Different Phytosanitary Demands
6.3. Changes in Pest Dynamics
6.4. Keeping up with Evolving Technologies
6.5. Insufficient Phytosanitary Standards for Germplasm Transfers from Genebanks and Breeding Programs
7. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Disease | Pest | Hosts | First Detection and Spread in SSA | Spread Pathway |
---|---|---|---|---|
Asian soybean rust | Phakopsora pachyrhizi (fungus) | Soybean, >150 legume species | First detected in Zambia in the 1980s; spread to most of sub-Saharan Africa | Possibly spread through air-borne urediniospores, which blew from Western India to East Africa |
Banana bunchy top | Banana bunchy top virus (virus) | Banana/plantain | First reported in Egypt in 1902; and then in the Democratic Republic of Congo; spread to most of Central Africa, and adjoining countries in Southern and Western sub-Saharan Africa | Introduced from South-Pacific or Asia through infected suckers; further spread through exchange of infected planting material and aphid (Pentalonia nigronervosa) vectors |
Banana bacterial wilt | Xanthomonas campestris pv. Musacearum (bacterium) | Banana/plantain | Burundi, Rwanda, Democratic Republic of Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania | Possibly introduced from Ethiopia to Uganda and then across the Great Lakes region through planting material, infected plant parts, or contaminated tools |
Cassava green mite | Monoychellus tanajoa (Insect) | Cassava | First detected in Uganda in 1971; presently widespread in Africa | Introduced from South America into Africa; path of spread not known |
Cassava mealybug | Phenacoccus manihoti (Insect) | Cassava | First detected in the Democratic Republic of Congo in 1973; presently widespread in Africa | Possibly introduced from South America to Africa through plant parts, or containers |
Cassava brown streak | Cassava brown streak ipomoviruses (Virus) | Cassava | Native species in Malawi, Mozambique, and Tanzania in Southern Africa; first recorded in East Africa in 2004 in an epidemic around the Great Lakes region Burundi, Comoros, DRC, Kenya, Rwanda, Uganda, and Zambia | Spread through exchange of infected stem cuttings and whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) vectors |
Fall armyworm | Spodoptera frugiperda (Insect) | Maize and other crops | First detected in Nigeria in 2016; known to occur in all African countries | Path of spread not known; likely through plants, plant parts, or cargo containers. |
Fruit fly | Bactrocera dorsalis
(Insect) | Mango and other crops | First reported in Mauritius in 1996; and on the mainland in Kenya in 2003; presently widespread in Africa and offshore islands | Pathway of spread not known; likely through plants, plant parts, or cargo containers |
Maize lethal necrosis | Maize chlorotic mottle virus | Maize, sorghum, pearl millet | First detected in Kenya in 2011; then in Burundi, DRC, Ethiopia, Rwanda, Tanzania, and Uganda | Possibly spread from Southeast Asia |
Panama disease—tropical race 4 | Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Cubense Tropical Race 4 (Fungus) | Banana/plantain | First detected in 2010 in Mozambique; no reports of further spread in Africa | Introduced from South East Asia; possibly introduction through contaminated soil or planting material |
Papaya mealybug | Paracoccus marginatus (Insect) | Papaya and several hosts | First detected in Ghana in 2009; spread to most African countries | Possibly spread from Southeast Asia /South Pacific islands through plants, plant parts, or other sources |
Potato cyst nematode | Globodera pallida (Nematode) | Potato | First detected in Algeria in 2011; subsequently in Kenya in 2018; and then in neighboring countries in East Africa | Possibly spread from European region with seed potato |
Taro blight | Phytophthora colocasiae (Oomycete) | Taro | First reported in Nigeria in 2011; Spread to most countries in sub-Saharan Africa | Possibly spread from South Pacific islands through infected corms |
Tomato leaf miner | Tuta absoluta (Insect) | Tomato and other solanaceous crops | First reported from Benin in 2005; spread to most countries in Africa | Wind-borne spread of insects from the northern region |
Wheat blast | Magnaporthe oryzae pathotype Triticum (Fungus) | Wheat | First reported in Zambia in 2020 | Possibly spread through contaminated seed/grain |
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Kumar, P.L.; Cuervo, M.; Kreuze, J.F.; Muller, G.; Kulkarni, G.; Kumari, S.G.; Massart, S.; Mezzalama, M.; Alakonya, A.; Muchugi, A.; et al. Phytosanitary Interventions for Safe Global Germplasm Exchange and the Prevention of Transboundary Pest Spread: The Role of CGIAR Germplasm Health Units. Plants 2021, 10, 328. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10020328
Kumar PL, Cuervo M, Kreuze JF, Muller G, Kulkarni G, Kumari SG, Massart S, Mezzalama M, Alakonya A, Muchugi A, et al. Phytosanitary Interventions for Safe Global Germplasm Exchange and the Prevention of Transboundary Pest Spread: The Role of CGIAR Germplasm Health Units. Plants. 2021; 10(2):328. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10020328
Chicago/Turabian StyleKumar, P. Lava, Maritza Cuervo, J. F. Kreuze, Giovanna Muller, Gururaj Kulkarni, Safaa G. Kumari, Sebastien Massart, Monica Mezzalama, Amos Alakonya, Alice Muchugi, and et al. 2021. "Phytosanitary Interventions for Safe Global Germplasm Exchange and the Prevention of Transboundary Pest Spread: The Role of CGIAR Germplasm Health Units" Plants 10, no. 2: 328. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10020328
APA StyleKumar, P. L., Cuervo, M., Kreuze, J. F., Muller, G., Kulkarni, G., Kumari, S. G., Massart, S., Mezzalama, M., Alakonya, A., Muchugi, A., Graziosi, I., Ndjiondjop, M. -N., Sharma, R., & Negawo, A. T. (2021). Phytosanitary Interventions for Safe Global Germplasm Exchange and the Prevention of Transboundary Pest Spread: The Role of CGIAR Germplasm Health Units. Plants, 10(2), 328. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10020328