Chemical Tracing and the Origin of Carbon in the Galactic Disk
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. The Model Equations
2.1. The Galactic Disk
2.2. The LIMS Yields
2.3. The HMS Yields
2.4. Initial Conditions
3. Diagnostics and Observations
3.1. The Time Variation of [O/H] and the Gas Density
3.2. The Abundance–Abundance Diagram
3.3. The Abundance-Ratio versus Time Relation
4. Application: The Origin of Carbon in the Galactic Disk
4.1. Observational Data
- A sample of 57 Thin disk stars from Amarsi et al. [5], see the [C/O]-[O/H] diagram in their Figure 13. Ages were not provided. Abundances were derived from high S/N spectra at high spectral resolution and with 3D model atmospheres and model spectra with due consideration of non-LTE effects. However, the slope k may be overestimated due to inclusion of some older metal-rich stars;
- The sample of 78 solar-like stars of Bedell et al. [39], see Section 3.1. Carbon abundances were derived from high-excitation C I lines and molecular CH lines with 1D LTE model atmospheres and model spectra;
- The sample of 72 solar-like stars of Nissen et al. [13] in a range of [Fe/H]. Carbon abundances were obtained from highly excited C I lines. The spectra were analysed with 1D LTE models (though with some corrections applied for 3D non-LTE effects) and the resulting abundances were judged to be rather little dependent on the uncertainties involved in the analysis of spectra. The highest [C/O] was obtained for about 10 stars with ages of about 6 Gyr with an intriguing tendency for the planetary hosts to be over-rich in carbon: These stars while the younger stars did not show any significant systematic variation of [C/O] with age;
- The sample of 67 solar-type stars of Botelho et al. [44]. Carbon abundances were obtained from molecular lines in the blue-violet spectral region and a smaller and even negative value of k was found, although there also seems to be some increase of [C/O] with time. Oxygen abundances were adopted from Bedell et al. [39], isochrone ages from Spina et al. [45];
- The sample of 365 Thin disk FGK dwarf stars of Franchini et al. [46] from the Gaia-ESO survey, with carbon abundances derived from high excitation C I lines [31], oxygen abundances from the [O I] 6300.3 Å line, and isochrone ages. Even if the errors in observed spectra and analysis may be larger for this sample than for some of the others, it has a virtue in comparison: its much bigger size and wide span in [Fe/H], extending from values around −0.5 to +0.3.
4.2. Comparison with Models
5. Discussion and Conclusions
- (1)
- The suggestive agreement between observed Solar absolute abundances of oxygen and carbon and those calculated for HMS by Equation (12), on the assumption that the gas density and oxygen abundance are fairly stationary in the disk, have already been mentioned;
- (2)
- The observed C/C ratios in the photospheres of carbon stars on the AGB (Lambert et al. [49], Hinkle et al. [50]) tend to be higher than the ratios of K giants of typically 15, but in a wide range from 4 to 97, with a mean value of 48 [49]. The C/C ratios found in carbon star envelopes by Ramstedt and Olofsson [51] show a similar tendency with values in the same range, however with a distribution clearly peaked towards values below 40. The particularly C-rich carbon stars, the J-type stars, amount to at least 10% and probably considerably more of a volume-limited sample of carbon stars, see Abia et al. [52] who show that the J stars are systematically less luminous than normal N stars why they should be underrepresented in the usually magnitude-limited samples. One might then argue that the J stars should have lowered the isotope ratio to far below 50 for the solar cloud if LIMS, in particular the carbon stars, were main contributors to Solar carbon. However, Ramstedt and Olofsson [51] found that J stars tend to have significantly smaller mass-loss rates than the normal N stars why it is unclear whether the J stars could have lowered the Solar isotope ratio very much. One should also note that Ziurys et al. [53] find remarkably low isotope ratios for planetary nebulae including carbon-rich ones, ratios approximately ranging from 1 to 15. Most of these results for the isotope ratio are significantly lower than that of the Solar system of about 89 (see, e.g., Clayton and Nittler [54], Asplund et al. [40], as well as the C/C results obtained for Solar twins by Botelho et al. [44]). The production of C nuclei by HMS is several orders of magnitude smaller than the C production, according to the yields by Limongi and Chieffi [37]. These results seem to suggest that at the most about half of the carbon was produced in “typical” carbon stars, if not fractionation processes have increased the solar ratio at early stages, such as may be indicated by the findings by Smith et al. [55] of quite high carbon-isotope ratios in young stellar objects;
- (3)
- Henry et al. [56] found unexpectedly low carbon abundances in well-studied planetary nebulae with known progenitor masses of two to three solar masses, but also higher nitrogen abundances than theoretical calculations of yields suggest.
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Abbreviations
AGB | Asymptotic Giant Branch |
HMS | High Mass Stars |
LIMS | Intermediate and Low-Mass Stars |
IMF | Initial Mass Function (distribution over mass of stars at formation) |
Appendix A. Errors in Estimates of Slopes by Regression Analyses of Scattered Data
0.0359 | 0.0148 | 0.0057 | 0.0283 | −0.0019 | 0.0048 | 0.0153 |
0.0700 | 0.0448 | 0.0549 | 0.0178 | 0.0495 | 0.0055 | 0.0124 |
0.1050 | 0.1330 | 0.1334 | 0.0178 | 0.0669 | 0.0652 | 0.0087 |
0.2100 | 0.1785 | 0.1747 | 0.0192 | 0.0891 | 0.1059 | 0.0104 |
0.2800 | 0.3389 | 0.3311 | 0.0207 | 0.1440 | 0.1417 | 0.0220 |
0.3500 | 0.3661 | 0.3635 | 0.0238 | 0.1536 | 0.1545 | 0.0127 |
0.0000 | 0.0010 | 0.0010 | 0.0027 | 0.0000 | 0.0012 | 0.0011 |
0.0007 | 0.0007 | 0.0025 | 0.0035 | 0.0007 | 0.0012 | 0.0009 |
0.0035 | 0.0032 | 0.0037 | 0.0014 | 0.0003 | 0.0001 | 0.0008 |
0.0042 | 0.0054 | 0.0050 | 0.0020 | 0.0014 | 0.0014 | 0.0007 |
0.0056 | 0.0089 | 0.0083 | 0.0021 | 0.0027 | 0.0032 | 0.0011 |
0.0070 | 0.0111 | 0.0109 | 0.0016 | 0.0072 | 0.0069 | 0.0012 |
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Parameter | Symbol | Equation | Values 1 |
---|---|---|---|
Galaxy | |||
IMF mass dependence | (2) | 2.2, 2.35, 2.5 | |
Star formation rate | (3) | 1.2, 1.4, 1.6 | |
Yield | |||
Peak mass of profile | (6), (7), (9) | 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 | |
Width of peak | (6), (7), (10) | 1, 2 | |
Extension to high mass | Q | (8) | 0.0–0.6 |
Z correction to | (9) | 0, 1 | |
Z correction to | (10) | 0, 1 | |
Z correction to HMS yield | (11) | 0.0–1.0 | |
Contribution of HMS rel. to LIMS in Sun | g | 0.1–1.0–20 | |
Initial conditions | |||
Initial O and C abundances | 0.25–0.5–1.0 |
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Gustafsson, B. Chemical Tracing and the Origin of Carbon in the Galactic Disk. Universe 2022, 8, 409. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe8080409
Gustafsson B. Chemical Tracing and the Origin of Carbon in the Galactic Disk. Universe. 2022; 8(8):409. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe8080409
Chicago/Turabian StyleGustafsson, Bengt. 2022. "Chemical Tracing and the Origin of Carbon in the Galactic Disk" Universe 8, no. 8: 409. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe8080409