An Introduction to Particle Dark Matter †
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Why Do We Need Dark Matter?
1.2. Microscopic Features of Dark Matter
1.2.1. Is Dark Matter Actually Dark?
1.2.2. Is Dark Matter Collisionless?
1.2.3. Is Dark Matter Classical?
1.2.4. Is Dark Matter a Fluid?
- Mass:
- There are more than 90 orders of magnitude of mass range available for bosons; 70 for fermions.
- Interactions:
- A self-interaction is possible, if of the order at most of the strong interaction, so of the order of the MeV. It is in principle also possible to have interactions with ordinary Standard Model particles, as long as such interactions do not involve emission of photons, otherwise DM halos would shine and be visible. Particularly promising as DM candidates are massive particles that interact only via weak interactions, the so-called WIMPs (Weakly Interacting Massive Particle).
- Abundance:
- It has to be enough in order to satisfy the observational constraint . As we shall see later, this is achieved naturally for WIMPs and such occurrence is usually referred to as the WIMP miracle.
1.3. Observational Constraints on Dark Matter Interactions
2. Thermal Decoupling
2.1. Thermal Relics
2.1.1. Hot Thermal Relics
2.1.2. Cold Thermal Relics
2.2. Boltzmann Equation
2.3. Modified Expansion History and Relic Abundance: The Kination Example
2.4. Dark Matter after Chemical Decoupling
3. Detectability of Particle Dark Matter
3.1. Direct Detection
- Slowly decaying “primeval” nuclides such as Uranium, Thorium and Potassium-40, whose abundance is about and half-life is years;
- Rare, fast decaying trace elements like tritium and Carbon-14, whose abundance is about and half-lives of the order of 10 years.
3.2. Indirect Detection
- If DM particles belong to an SU(2) multiplet, then we expect well-defined combinations of , final states;
- In Universal Extra Dimension (UED) theories [30], DM is the Kaluza-Klein KK-1 mode of hypercharged gauge boson, thus the scattering matrix element is proportional to the fermion hypercharge , that is, , and the preferred annihilation modes are the up quarks and charged leptons .
- We expect a special selection rule, for example helicity suppression for Majorana fermion (analogous to charged pion decay):
- Very indirect. Looking for DM effects induced in astrophysical objects or in cosmological observations.
- Pretty indirect. Using probes that do not trace back to the annihilation event, since their trajectories are bent as the particles propagate. For example, cosmic rays.
- Not-so-indirect. Using neutrinos and gamma rays, which have the great added advantage of traveling in straight lines.
3.2.1. Very Indirect Probes
- Solar Physics. It is possible that DM could affect Sun’s core temperature or the sound speed in its interior;
- Neutron Star Capture. DM can lead to Neutron star capture that eventually leads to the formation of black holes (notably e.g., in the context of asymmetric DM);
- Supernova and Stars, in which DM could be responsible for cooling processes;
- Protostars, for example WIMP-fueled population-III stars;
- Planets warming;
- Cosmological observation, where the DM content has strong implication for, for example Big Bang Nucleosynthesis or the Cosmic Microwave Background spectrum, also affecting the time of the recombination, or the structure formation process.
3.2.2. Pretty Indirect Probes
- There is no excess of antiprotons, so DM should be leptophilic, which is possible but not generic;
- There is no observed secondary radiation due to bremsstrahlung or inverse Compton scattering;
- A very large pair annihilation rate is required for thermal production, which leads to unseen gamma-ray or radio emission, that is:
3.2.3. Not-So-Indirect Probes
- Dwarf Spheroidal Galaxies
- Draco, GeV2/cm5 ± a factor 1.5;
- Ursa Minor, GeV2/cm5 ± a factor 1.5;
- Segue, GeV2/cm5 ± a factor 3.
- Local Milky-Way like galaxies
- M31, GeV2/cm5.
- Local clusters of galaxies
- Fornax, GeV2/cm5;
- Coma, GeV2/cm5;
- Bullet, GeV2/cm5.
- Galactic center
- , GeV2/cm5;
- , GeV2/cm5.
3.2.4. The Galactic Center Excess
3.2.5. Collider Production of Dark Matter Particles
- Top-down: pick a model and scan the parameter space (e.g., supersymmetry or unified theories).
- Bottom-up: use some effective field theory (EFT) or simplified models to sketch of how DM could manifest itself at colliders.
3.2.6. Axions and Axions Searches
3.2.7. Sterile Neutrinos and the 3.5 keV Line Puzzle
- SU(2)L gauge singlet but have a small mixing angle with active neutrinos;
- Cosmologically viable candidates of DM [53];
- not stable because they decay via mixing with active neutrinos.
- Plasma temperature;
- Relative elemental abundances.
- It is a new indirect detection channel;
- it has an unmistakable signature, free of background;
- Is a good model, in the sense that it is economic, with a natural UV completion and a thermal relic DM.
- Its line shape, for example geometric average of thermal DM velocities, can be resolved by for example the Hitomi/astro-h satellite;
- It has unique morphology
- It has unique target-dependence
- Lines could appear anywhere in the spectrum, from eV, to UV, to X-ray.
4. Dark Matter Bestiarium
4.1. Gravitinos
4.2. WIMPzillas and Super-Heavy Dark Matter Candidates
- The DM particle is never in thermal equilibrium;
- The particle mass is comparable to the inflaton mass say ;
- The particle lifetime is much longer than the age of the universe.
4.3. Self-Interacting Dark Matter
4.4. Asymmetric Dark Matter
4.5. Minimality
4.6. Dark Photons
5. Conclusions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Aghanim, N.; et al. [Planck Collaboration] Planck 2018 results. VI. Cosmological parameters. arXiv 2018, arXiv:1807.06209. [Google Scholar]
- Abbott, T.M.C.; et al. [DES Collaboration] Dark Energy Survey year 1 results: Cosmological constraints from galaxy clustering and weak lensing. Phys. Rev. 2018, D98, 043526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Alam, S.; Ata, M.; Bailey, S.; Beutler, F.; Bizyaev, D.; Blazek, J.A.; Bolton, A.S.; Brownstein, J.R.; Burden, A.; Chuan, C.-H.; et al. The clustering of galaxies in the completed SDSS-III Baryon Oscillation Spectroscopic Survey: Cosmological analysis of the DR12 galaxy sample. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 2017, 470, 2617–2652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dodelson, S. Modern Cosmology; Academic Press: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 2003. [Google Scholar]
- Piattella, O.F. Lecture Notes in Cosmology; UNITEXT for Physics; Springer: Cham, The Netherlands, 2018. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dodelson, S. The Real Problem with MOND. Int. J. Mod. Phys. 2011, D20, 2749–2753. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Milgrom, M. New Physics at Low Accelerations (MOND): An Alternative to Dark Matter. AIP Conf. Proc. 2010, 1241, 139–153. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bekenstein, J.; Milgrom, M. Does the missing mass problem signal the breakdown of Newtonian gravity? Astrophys. J. 1984, 286, 7–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Muñoz, J.B.; Loeb, A. A small amount of mini-charged dark matter could cool the baryons in the early Universe. Nature 2018, 557, 684. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fan, J.; Katz, A.; Randall, L.; Reece, M. Double-Disk Dark Matter. Phys. Dark Univ. 2013, 2, 139–156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Fan, J.; Katz, A.; Shelton, J. Direct and indirect detection of dissipative dark matter. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2014, 1406, 059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tremaine, S.; Gunn, J.E. Dynamical Role of Light Neutral Leptons in Cosmology. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1979, 42, 407–410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lacey, C.G.; Ostriker, J.P. Massive black holes in galactic halos ? Astrophys. J. 1985, 299, 633–652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goerdt, T.; Gnedin, O.Y.; Moore, B.; Diemand, J.; Stadel, J. The survival and disruption of CDM micro-haloes: Implications for direct and indirect detection experiments. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 2007, 375, 191–198. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Arcadi, G.; Dutra, M.; Ghosh, P.; Lindner, M.; Mambrini, Y.; Pierre, M.; Profumo, S.; Queiroz, F.S. The waning of the WIMP? A review of models, searches, and constraints. Eur. Phys. J. 2018, C78, 203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cowsik, R.; McClelland, J. An Upper Limit on the Neutrino Rest Mass. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1972, 29, 669–670. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Graesser, M.L.; Shoemaker, I.M.; Vecchi, L. Asymmetric WIMP dark matter. J. High Energy Phys. 2011, 10, 110. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weinberg, S. The Quantum theory of fields: Vol. 1: Foundations; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 2005. [Google Scholar]
- Feng, J.L.; Kaplinghat, M.; Yu, H.B. Sommerfeld Enhancements for Thermal Relic Dark Matter. Phys. Rev. 2010, D82, 083525. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lee, B.W.; Weinberg, S. Cosmological Lower Bound on Heavy Neutrino Masses. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1977, 39, 165–168. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kolb, E.W.; Turner, M.S. The Early Universe. Front. Phys. 1990, 69, 1–547. [Google Scholar]
- Griest, K.; Seckel, D. Three exceptions in the calculation of relic abundances. Phys. Rev. 1991, D43, 3191–3203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Salati, P. Quintessence and the relic density of neutralinos. Phys. Lett. 2003, B571, 121–131. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Davis, M.; Efstathiou, G.; Frenk, C.S.; White, S.D.M. The Evolution of Large Scale Structure in a Universe Dominated by Cold Dark Matter. Astrophys. J. 1985, 292, 371–394. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bethe, H.; Peierls, R. The ‘neutrino’. Nature 1934, 133, 532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hasert, F.J.; Kabe, S.; Krenz, W.; Von Krogh, J.; Lanske, D.; Morfin, J.; Schultze, K.; Weerts, H.; Bertrand-Coremans, G.; Sacton, J.; et al. Observation of Neutrino Like Interactions Without Muon Or Electron in the Gargamelle Neutrino Experiment. Phys. Lett. 1973, B46, 138–140. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Drukier, A.K.; Freese, K.; Spergel, D.N. Detecting Cold Dark Matter Candidates. Phys. Rev. 1986, D33, 3495–3508. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Collar, J.I.; Avignone, F.T., III. The Effect of elastic scattering in the Earth on cold dark matter experiments. Phys. Rev. 1993, D47, 5238–5246. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Spergel, D.N. The Motion of the Earth and the Detection of Wimps. Phys. Rev. 1988, D37, 1353. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hooper, D.; Profumo, S. Dark Matter and Collider Phenomenology of Universal Extra Dimensions. Phys. Rep. 2007, 453, 29–115. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adriani, O.; Barbarino, G.C.; Bazilevskaya, G.A.; Bellotti, R.; Boezio, M.; Bogomolov, E.A.; Bonechi, L.; Bongi, M.; Bonvicini, V.; Borisov, S.; et al. PAMELA Measurements of Cosmic-ray Proton and Helium Spectra. Science 2011, 332, 69–72. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bringmann, T.; Huang, X.; Ibarra, A.; Vogl, S.; Weniger, C. Fermi LAT Search for Internal Bremsstrahlung Signatures from Dark Matter Annihilation. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2012, 1207, 054. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Weniger, C. A Tentative Gamma-Ray Line from Dark Matter Annihilation at the Fermi Large Area Telescope. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2012, 1208, 007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ackermann, M.; et al. [The Fermi-LAT Collaboration] Constraining Dark Matter Models from a Combined Analysis of Milky Way Satellites with the Fermi Large Area Telescope. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2011, 107, 241302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Goodenough, L.; Hooper, D. Possible Evidence For Dark Matter Annihilation In The Inner Milky Way From The Fermi Gamma Ray Space Telescope. arXiv 2009, arXiv:0910.2998. [Google Scholar]
- Daylan, T.; Finkbeiner, D.P.; Hooper, D.; Linden, T.; Portillo, S.K.N.; Rodd, N.L.; Slatyer, T.R. The characterization of the gamma-ray signal from the central Milky Way: A case for annihilating dark matter. Phys. Dark Univ. 2016, 12, 1–23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Abazajian, K.N.; Canac, N.; Horiuchi, S.; Kaplinghat, M. Astrophysical and Dark Matter Interpretations of Extended Gamma-Ray Emission from the Galactic Center. Phys. Rev. 2014, D90, 023526. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gordon, C.; Macias, O. Dark Matter and Pulsar Model Constraints from Galactic Center Fermi-LAT Gamma Ray Observations. Phys. Rev. 2013, D88, 083521. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carlson, E.; Profumo, S. Cosmic Ray Protons in the Inner Galaxy and the Galactic Center Gamma-Ray Excess. Phys. Rev. 2014, D90, 023015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Goodman, J.; Ibe, M.; Rajaraman, A.; Shepherd, W.; Tait, T.M.P.; Yu, H.B. Constraints on Dark Matter from Colliders. Phys. Rev. 2010, D82, 116010. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aad, G.; et al. [The ATLAS collaboration] Search for invisible decays of a Higgs boson using vector-boson fusion in pp collisions at = 8 TeV with the ATLAS detector. J. High Energy Phys. 2016, 1, 172. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- ’t Hooft, G. Computation of the Quantum Effects Due to a Four-Dimensional Pseudoparticle. Phys. Rev. 1976, D14, 3432–3450. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pendlebury, J.M.; Afach, S.; Ayres, N.J.; Baker, C.A.; Ban, G.; Bison, G.; Bodek, K.; Burghoff, M.; Geltenbort, P.; Green, K.; et al. Revised experimental upper limit on the electric dipole moment of the neutron. Phys. Rev. 2015, D92, 092003. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Peccei, R.D.; Quinn, H.R. CP Conservation in the Presence of Instantons. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1977, 38, 1440–1443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Vafa, C.; Witten, E. Parity Conservation in QCD. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1984, 53, 535. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sikivie, P. Axion Cosmology. Lect. Notes Phys. 2008, 741, 19–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hiramatsu, T.; Kawasaki, M.; Saikawa, K.; Sekiguchi, T. Production of dark matter axions from collapse of string-wall systems. Phys. Rev. 2012, D85, 105020. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Redondo, J.; Ringwald, A. Light shining through walls. Contemp. Phys. 2011, 52, 211–236. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ballou, R.; Deferne, G.; Finger, M., Jr.; Finger, M.; Flekova, L.; Hosek, J.; Kunc, S.; Macuchova, K.; Meissner, K.A.; Pugnat, P.; et al. New exclusion limits on scalar and pseudoscalar axionlike particles from light shining through a wall. Phys. Rev. 2015, D92, 092002. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Sikivie, P. Experimental Tests of the Invisible Axion. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1983, 51, 1415–1417. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anastassopoulos, V.; et al. [CAST Collaboration] New CAST Limit on the Axion-Photon Interaction. Nat. Phys. 2017, 13, 584–590. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Hall, L.J.; Jedamzik, K.; March-Russell, J.; West, S.M. Freeze-In Production of FIMP Dark Matter. J. High Energy Phys. 2010, 3, 80. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dodelson, S.; Widrow, L.M. Sterile-neutrinos as dark matter. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1994, 72, 17–20. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mikheyev, S.P.; Smirnov, A.Y. Resonance Amplification of Oscillations in Matter and Spectroscopy of Solar Neutrinos. Sov. J. Nucl. Phys. 1985, 42, 913–917. [Google Scholar]
- Wolfenstein, L. Neutrino Oscillations in Matter. Phys. Rev. 1978, D17, 2369–2374. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Shi, X.D.; Fuller, G.M. A New dark matter candidate: Nonthermal sterile neutrinos. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1999, 82, 2832–2835. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bisnovatyi-Kogan, G.S. Asymmetric neutrino emission and formation of rapidly moving pulsars. Astron. Astrophys. Trans. 1993, 3, 287–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bulbul, E.; Markevitch, M.; Foster, A.; Smith, R.K.; Loewenstein, M.; Randall, S.W. Detection of an Unidentified Emission Line in the Stacked X-ray spectrum of Galaxy Clusters. Astrophys. J. 2014, 789, 13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boyarsky, A.; Ruchayskiy, O.; Iakubovskyi, D.; Franse, J. Unidentified Line in X-Ray Spectra of the Andromeda Galaxy and Perseus Galaxy Cluster. Phys. Rev. Lett. 2014, 113, 251301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Jeltema, T.E.; Profumo, S. Discovery of a 3.5 keV line in the Galactic Centre and a critical look at the origin of the line across astronomical targets. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 2015, 450, 2143–2152. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Malyshev, D.; Neronov, A.; Eckert, D. Constraints on 3.55 keV line emission from stacked observations of dwarf spheroidal galaxies. Phys. Rev. 2014, D90, 103506. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Anderson, M.E.; Churazov, E.; Bregman, J.N. Non-Detection of X-ray Emission From Sterile Neutrinos in Stacked Galaxy Spectra. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 2015, 452, 3905–3923. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Jeltema, T.E.; Profumo, S. Deep XMM Observations of Draco rule out at the 99% Confidence Level a Dark Matter Decay Origin for the 3.5 keV Line. Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 2016, 458, 3592–3596. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Carlson, E.; Jeltema, T.; Profumo, S. Where do the 3.5 keV photons come from? A morphological study of the Galactic Center and of Perseus. J. Cosmol. Astropart. Phys. 2015, 1502, 009. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Longair, M.S. High-energy astrophysics. an informal introduction for students of physics and astronomy. Phys. Today 1981, 35, 62. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- D’Eramo, F.; Hambleton, K.; Profumo, S.; Stefaniak, T. Dark matter inelastic up-scattering with the interstellar plasma: A new source of X-ray lines, including at 3.5 keV. Phys. Rev. 2016, D93, 103011. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Pagels, H.; Primack, J.R. Supersymmetry, Cosmology and New TeV Physics. Phys. Rev. Lett. 1982, 48, 223. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bailly, S.; Jedamzik, K.; Moultaka, G. Gravitino Dark Matter and the Cosmic Lithium Abundances. Phys. Rev. 2009, D80, 063509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kolb, E.W.; Chung, D.J.H.; Riotto, A. WIMPzillas! AIP Conf. Proc. 1999, 484, 91–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chung, D.J.H.; Kolb, E.W.; Riotto, A.; Senatore, L. Isocurvature constraints on gravitationally produced superheavy dark matter. Phys. Rev. 2005, D72, 023511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kuzmin, V.A.; Tkachev, I.I. Ultrahigh-energy cosmic rays and inflation relics. Phys. Rep. 1999, 320, 199–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Witten, E. Cosmic Separation of Phases. Phys. Rev. 1984, D30, 272–285. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Boddy, K.K.; Feng, J.L.; Kaplinghat, M.; Tait, T.M.P. Self-Interacting Dark Matter from a Non-Abelian Hidden Sector. Phys. Rev. 2014, D89, 115017. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tulin, S.; Yu, H.B.; Zurek, K.M. Beyond Collisionless Dark Matter: Particle Physics Dynamics for Dark Matter Halo Structure. Phys. Rev. 2013, D87, 115007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mambrini, Y.; Toma, T. X-ray lines and self-interacting dark matter. Eur. Phys. J. 2015, C75, 570. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Nussinov, S. Technocosmology: Could a technibaryon excess provide a natural missing mass candidate? Phys. Lett. 1985, 165B, 55–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Harvey, J.A.; Turner, M.S. Cosmological baryon and lepton number in the presence of electroweak fermion number violation. Phys. Rev. 1990, D42, 3344–3349. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Feng, L.; Profumo, S.; Ubaldi, L. Closing in on singlet scalar dark matter: LUX, invisible Higgs decays and gamma-ray lines. JHEP 2015, 3, 45. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cirelli, M.; Fornengo, N.; Strumia, A. Minimal dark matter. Nucl. Phys. 2006, B753, 178–194. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deshpande, N.G.; Ma, E. Pattern of Symmetry Breaking with Two Higgs Doublets. Phys. Rev. 1978, D18, 2574. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Essig, R.; Steffen, J.H.; Hatzikoutelis, A.; Averett, T.; Marsh, D.J.E.; Bjorken, J.D.; Baker, O.; Batell, B.; Battaglieri, M.; Beacham, J.; et al. Working Group Report: New Light Weakly Coupled Particles. In Proceedings of the 2013 Community Summer Study on the Future of U.S. Particle Physics: Snowmass on the Mississippi (CSS2013), Minneapolis, MN, USA, 29 July–6 August 2013. [Google Scholar]
1. | This is not the case in the so-called Asymmetric WIMPs models, see, for example, Reference [17]. |
2. | Note that this bound is not valid in presence of Sommerfeld enhancements annihilation, see, for example, Reference [19]. |
3. | Note that when dealing with annihilation this formula provides the freeze-out temperature, whereas when dealing with elastic scattering this formula provides the kinetic decoupling temperature. |
4. | |
5. | |
6. | The interested reader might try to run a simulation with PITHIA, http://home.thep.lu.se/Pythia/. |
7. | William of Occam, c. 1286–1347. |
8. | Quoted in Reference [65], Section 2.5.1, The psychology of astronomers and astrophysicists. |
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Profumo, S.; Giani, L.; Piattella, O.F. An Introduction to Particle Dark Matter. Universe 2019, 5, 213. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe5100213
Profumo S, Giani L, Piattella OF. An Introduction to Particle Dark Matter. Universe. 2019; 5(10):213. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe5100213
Chicago/Turabian StyleProfumo, Stefano, Leonardo Giani, and Oliver F. Piattella. 2019. "An Introduction to Particle Dark Matter" Universe 5, no. 10: 213. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe5100213
APA StyleProfumo, S., Giani, L., & Piattella, O. F. (2019). An Introduction to Particle Dark Matter. Universe, 5(10), 213. https://doi.org/10.3390/universe5100213