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Article

Characterization of Volatile Organic Compounds Released by Penicillium expansum and Penicillium polonicum

by
Guohua Yin
1,*,
Kayla K. Pennerman
2,
Wenpin Chen
3,
Tao Wu
3 and
Joan W. Bennett
4
1
College of Biological and Chemical Engineering, Qilu Institute of Technology, Jinan 250200, China
2
School of Natural Sciences & Mathematics, Stockton University, Galloway, NJ 08205-9441, USA
3
College of Horticulture, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China
4
Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA 70118, USA
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Metabolites 2026, 16(1), 37; https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo16010037 (registering DOI)
Submission received: 20 November 2025 / Revised: 22 December 2025 / Accepted: 29 December 2025 / Published: 1 January 2026
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Mycotoxins and Fungal Secondary Metabolism)
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Abstract

Background/Objectives: Fungi produce a diverse array of metabolites, including various volatile organic compounds (VOCs) with known physiological functions and other biological activities. These metabolites hold significant potential for medical and industrial applications. Within the fungal domain, Penicillium species represent a particularly important group. Methods: This study characterized the VOC profiles of four Penicillium expansum strains (R11, R19, R21, and R27) and one Penicillium polonicum strain (RS1) using the solid-phase microextraction–gas chromatography–mass spectrometry technique. Results: The analysis revealed that the only compound in common among the five strains of Penicillium was phenyl ethanol. The high toxicity of P. polonicum RS1 to Drosophila larvae correlated with its diverse and abundant alkene production. Specifically, alkenes constituted 31.28% of its total VOCs, followed by alcohols at 29.13%. GC-MS analyses detected 22, 17, 22, and 18 specific VOCs from R11, R19, R21, and R27, respectively. Overall, alkenes dominated the R11 profile (17.03%), alcohols were most abundant in R19 (28.82%), and R21 showed the highest combined release of alcohols (23.2%) and alkenes (11.7%), while R27 produced a moderate abundance of alcohols (9.16%) and alkenes (4.19%). Among the P. expansum strains, R11, R21, and R27 exhibited substantially higher toxicity than R19 strain in our previous assessment; these findings are consistent with their respective VOC profiles. Conclusions: The distinct VOC compositions across Penicillium strains significantly influence their biological characteristics and ecological functions. These findings provide a basis for follow-up research into the mechanisms of fungal volatile-mediated toxicity and support the development of biocontrol strategies.

1. Introduction

Penicillium species are well known in antibiotic penicillin production [1]. Numerous Penicillium species also produce various bioactive metabolites, including hazardous mycotoxins [2] and high levels of other fungal metabolites that could be exploited as biocontrol agents [3]. P. expansum is the most aggressive and prevalent species, capable of infecting a wide range of fruits and vegetables such as apples, pears, kiwifruits, peaches, berries, citrus fruits, and tomatoes. Moreover, this species secretes patulin (PAT), a mycotoxin that exerts toxic effects on various animal and human tissues [4]. Fruit infection by P. expansum leads to the emission of specific volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which can serve as biomarkers for detecting contamination [5,6,7]. Subsequent studies reveal that styrene—a spoilage marker in Fuji apples decayed by P. expansum—is more significantly influenced by pH than by cultivation time [8].
Another Penicillium species, P. polonicum, has been identified as a fungal species in environmental samples [4,9]. It causes rot in stored onion bulbs [10], and accordingly, methyl 1-propenyl disulfide has been recognized as a general indicator of infection due to both Fusarium and Penicillium [11]. It is also reported to cause blue mold contamination on apple crops in the United States [12] and is both an inhabitant and a pathogen on green table olives [13]. Interestingly, one research group isolated a strain of P. polonicum (XL-6) from Fu brick tea production. Subsequent solid-state fermentation experiments demonstrated that this strain significantly altered the flavor profile and non-volatile metabolites of dark tea [14]. Another group showed that some compounds produced by this species display moderate inhibition on HepG2 hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines [15].
Beyond their role in environmental modification, certain VOCs also function as key signaling molecules between microorganisms and have been extensively studied as pheromones in arthropods [16,17]. VOCs possess diverse practical applications, serving as biocides [18], flavoring agents in foods and beverages [19], and volatile biosignatures for medical diagnostics [20,21]. In our previous studies, our data indicated that the VOCs of P. polonicum RS1 caused the highest toxicity to Drosophila larvae, followed by Penicillium solitum SA and P. expansum strains (R27, R11, and R21); P. expansum strains (G10 and R19) demonstrated the lowest toxicity, although the underlying mechanisms of action were not clear [4].
Although significant progress has been made in recent years in our knowledge of microbial VOCs, the volatile metabolite profiles of Penicillium species remain poorly characterized. As important products of microbial metabolism, VOCs exhibit diverse functional properties [22,23,24]. With the continuous advancement of analytical technologies, VOC profiling has become a widely used approach for characterizing microbial metabolomes. These methods offer high sensitivity, resolution, and accuracy while allowing for non-destructive detection of chemical components. Modern analytical techniques such as gas chromatography (GC) make it feasible to comprehensively and accurately identify and quantify the VOCs released during fungal cultivation processes under various environmental conditions.
The aim of this study was to characterize the volatilomes of two mold species, P. expansum and P. polonicum. Our specific goals are (1) to use GC-based methods to analyze the VOC profiles of four P. expansum strains and one P. polonicum strain cultivated on a common laboratory medium and (2) to investigate the potential factors underlying the differential toxicity observed among these Penicillium strains. This research provides a foundation for further exploration of the biological activities and practical applications of VOCs released by these Penicillium species.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Strains and Media

A total of five Penicillium strains were utilized for VOC analyses: four strains of Penicillium expansum (R11, R19, R21, and R27) [25] and one strain of Penicillium polonicum (RS1) [4]. The strains were collected and maintained on potato dextrose agar (PDA) in our lab. For VOC collection and analysis, solid PDA plates were inoculated with 5 µL of spore suspension (1 × 107 spores/mL) and incubated in the dark at 25 °C for 14 days. Blank controls were uninoculated PDA plates analyzed following the same method in order to exclude interfering substances coming from the medium. For each Penicllium sample, the VOCs released by one PDA plate cultivated for 14 days were collected and subjected for GC-MS analysis. Three biological replicates were assessed for each sample. All statistical analyses were performed using SPSS statistics 19 (IBM, New York, NY, USA) and with one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA, 2025). p < 0.05 was considered statistically significant for Duncan’s multiple comparison test. The data were fitted and plotted using Graphpad Prism 9.0.0 (GraphPad Software Inc., La Jolla, CA, USA).

2.2. GC-MS Detection of VOCs Emitted by Penicillium Species

The protocol for isolation and identification of fungal volatile compounds generally followed the method described by Zhao and colleagues [26]. Fungal strains were cultivated on PDA plates for fourteen days with lids lightly sealed to permit respiratory gas exchange. Two types of controls were used: sterile PDA and a blank consisting of ambient air only. VOCs emitted by the growing molds were analyzed using solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (SPME-GC-MS). Based on previously published headspace SPME-GC-MS methods specifically designed for fungal VOC detection, an optimized SPME-GC-MS method was developed for both qualitative and quantitative analysis of VOCs from plates.
The headspace SPME-GC-MS analysis was performed using an Agilent system (6890N-5975B). Fungal samples were equilibrated in an 80 °C water bath for 30 min, after which VOCs were extracted at 80 °C for 0.5 h and thermally desorbed from the SPME fiber in a programmable temperature injector operated in the splitless mode at 250 °C. Chromatographic separation was achieved using an HP-5MS column (30 m × 0.25 mm × 0.25 μm) with a carrier gas flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The oven temperature program was set as follows: 50 °C held for 2 min, increased at 5 °C/min to 180 °C and held for 5 min, then raised at 10 °C/min to 250 °C and held for 5 min. The ion source temperature was maintained at 230 °C and the quadrupoles at 150 °C.
For target VOC analyses, reference standards obtained from Sigma-Aldrich Corp. (St. Louis, MO, USA) were used as model compounds. A total of 1.0 µg of benzene-d6, toluene-d8, and naphthalene-d8 was used as the internal standard. Internal standards served only for retention time/mass shift monitoring. Identification and quantification were based on GC retention time, mass spectra, and peak area of each standard spiked into each Penicillium sample and PDA blank control under identical conditions. Other unknown VOCs were tentatively identified by comparing their spectra after background subtraction with entries in the NIST/EPA/NIH Mass Spectral Library (NIST 08 Mass Spectra Library, Gaithersburg, MD, USA). Following compound identification, a literature search was conducted to determine the known functions of each volatile associated with fungal metabolism.

3. Results

3.1. Analyses of VOC Profiles Emitted by Penicillium expansum

The volatile organic compounds emitted by four strains of P. expansum cultivated on PDA medium are presented in Supplementary Figure S1. The VOCs released from the PDA control are listed in Supplementary Table S1. Compared to the PDA control, strain P. expansum R11 released 22 VOCs that were categorized into five categories: alcohols (3 VOCs), acids (5 VOCs), aldehydes (3 VOCs), esters (3 VOCs), and alkenes (2 VOCs) (Table 1). Among these VOCs, styrene (16.24%) and 1,3-dimethoxy-benzene (5.47%) were the most abundant, each exceeding 5% in relative abundance. Each remaining specific VOC from R11 accounted for less than 5% in relative abundance, collectively comprising approximately 9.53% of the total volatile compounds (Table 1). Overall, alkenes were the most dominant group emitted by R11, representing 17.03% of the total VOCs (Figure 1).
Compared to the PDA control, P. expansum strain R19 emitted 17 VOCs, which were classified into four main categories: alcohols (6 VOCs), esters (3 VOCs), alkenes (3 VOCs), and alkanes (2 VOCs) (Table 2). Among the four Penicillium strains (R11, R21, R27, and RS1), R19 produced the fewest VOCs, with alcohols being the dominant group. The major alcohol compounds included ethyl alcohol (5.64%), 2-phenylethanol (14.63%), and geosmin (trans-1,10-dimethyl-trans-9-decalol, 6.94%) (Table 2). Collectively, alcohols accounted for 28.82% of the total VOCs emitted by R19. The remaining specific VOCs contributed 11.87% of the total VOC profile (Figure 1).
Compared to the PDA control, P. expansum strain R21 emitted 22 VOCs, which were categorized into five groups: alcohols (8 VOCs), acids (1 VOCs), aldehydes (2 VOCs), alkenes (7 VOCs), and alkanes (2 VOCs) (Table 3). Alcohols constituted 23.2% of the total VOCs, with ethyl alcohol and 2-phenylethanol accounting for 6.62% and 9.12%, respectively. Alkenes made up 11.7% of the total VOCs; (E)-7,11-dimethyl-3-meth-ylene-1,6,10-dodecatriene was the most abundant, at 8.83% (Table 3). Overall, R21 released the highest proportions of alcohols (23.2%) and alkenes (11.7%) among the VOC categories (Figure 1).
Compared to the PDA control, P. expansum strain R27 produced 18 VOCs, which were categorized into four groups: alcohols (4 VOCs), acids (3 VOCs), aldehydes (4 VOCs), and alkenes (2 VOCs) (Table 4). Among these VOCs, 2-phenylethanol accounted for 6.98%, and (E)-7,11-dimethyl-3-methylene-1,6,10-dodecatriene represented 4.39% of the total volatile compounds (Table 4). Overall, alcohols and alkenes were the most abundant categories, constituting 9.16% and 4.19% of the total VOCs in R27, respectively (Figure 1). Additionally, 1-methoxy-3-methyl-benzene, a component of truffle odor involved in chemical communication, was identified among the emitted compounds.

3.2. Analysis of VOC Profile of Penicillium polonicum RS1

Compared to the PDA control, 30 VOCs were identified from P. polonicum RS1 and were categorized into four main groups: alcohols (3 VOCs), aldehydes (3 VOCs), esters (3 VOCs), and alkenes (16 VOCs) (Table 5). The 30 compounds collectively accounted for 80.8% of the total VOC profile, with major constituents including 3,4-dimethylbenzyl alcohol (28.15%), 1-isopropyl-3-tert-butylbenzene (9.42%), 3,7,7-trimethyl-11-methylenespiro[5.5]undec-2-ene (8.31%), gamma-elemene (4.75%), and [3R-(3.alpha.,3a.beta.,7.beta.,8a.alpha.)]-2,3,4,7,8,8a-hexahydro-3,6,8,8-tetramethyl-1H-3a,7-methanoazulene (4.34%) (Table 5). Overall, alkenes represented the most abundant chemical class, at 31.28%, followed by alcohols, at 29.13% (Figure 2).

4. Discussion

Fungal volatile metabolites have been used in the detection and classification of fungi at the species level [27]. In our study, phenethyl alcohol was the only volatile compound detected across all five Penicillium strains in our study, suggesting that it could be used for the identification of these species of Penicllium. Phenyl alcohol has known antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant effects. As an organic compound with a distinctive irritating odor, it occurs naturally in various dicotyledonous plants and has broad applications in the pharmaceutical, food, and cosmetic industries [28]. In strawberries, it has been shown to inhibit fungal growth while helping to preserve aromatic quality [29]. Our study suggests that it could be exploited as a biofumigant for the control of important plant pathogens, not only on fresh fruit but also in other commodities, such as seeds, vegetables, cereals, pulses, and seedlings [30]. Other authors studying VOC profiles of Penicillium have reported the detection of 1-octene-3-ol (also called as mushroom alcohol), 3-octanone, and 3-octanol [31], but these compounds were not detected in our experiments.
Styrene increases the incidence of lung tumors in mice following high-dose exposure [32] and exhibits toxicity in the blood plasma and liver of rats [33]. 1,3-dimethoxy-benzene has also been identified in cultures of Pochnoia chlamydosporia and Metarhizium robertsii and was reported to be the second most repellent VOC to banana black weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) [34]. Penicillium species are known to secrete acidic compounds as a competitive strategy against other microorganisms, thereby enhancing their survival in complex environments [35]. In R11, five acidic compounds were detected, namely acetic acid, 2-amino-5-methyl-benzoic acid, dodecanoic acid, (Z, Z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid, and octadecanoic acid, together, accounting for 2.66% of the total VOCs (Figure 1). These findings suggest that the toxicity associated with R11 is primarily attributable to alkene compounds, while acidic and aldehyde compounds may contribute to a lower degree of toxicity.
In total, 17 VOCs were detected in R19. Alcohols dominated the VOC composite of this strain (28.82%). Geosmin was also detected and accounted for 6.94% of the total volatiles from R19. Geosmin is a sesquiterpenoid known to cause off-flavors in food and water [36], and it also functions as an ecological warning signal [37]. In earlier research, R19 VOCs exhibited the lowest toxicity toward third-instar Drosophila larvae of the Penicillium strains tested [4]. The combined contribution of alcohols and alkenes (34.9%) in R21 may explain the previously observed 35% toxicity of this strain to Drosophila [4]. 1-methoxy-3-methyl-benzene (3-methylanisole), a component of truffle odor detected in the R27 strain, is typical for Tuber mesentericum, T. brumale, T. indicum, and T. excavatum and has a strong, unpleasant, spicy odor reminiscent of car paint [38]. It reduces the attraction of male pine weevils to Scots pine twigs [39], indicating a repellent or deterrent biological function [40]. Splivallo et al. published a detailed review about truffle volatiles, spanning fields of study from chemical ecology to aroma biosynthesis [41].
The highest toxicity of RS1 VOCs to Drosophila is likely attributed to the high proportion of alkenes (31.28%) and alcohols (29.13%). Moreover, the RS1 strain produced a particularly diverse array of alkene compounds. Although each individual alkene was present at a relatively low concentration, their combined effect impacted Drosophila development [4]. Alkenes exhibit significant biological activity in Penicillium species, and styrene has been identified as a spoilage marker in Fuji apples [8]. Phenylethy alcohol is commonly employed in the formulation of essences for soaps and cosmetics [42]. The compound 2,6-dimethyl-6-(4-methyl-3-pentenyl)-bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene, known as trans-α-bergamotene, is widely used as a flavoring agent and has been identified in extracts of a number of plants utilized in traditional medicine [43]. (S)-1-methyl-4-(5-methyl-1-methylene-4-hexenyl)-cyclohexene, also referred to as bisabolene, is a potential precursor for biofuel production [44]. These compounds can act as signaling molecules that regulate fungal growth and differentiation, promote intercellular communication, and thereby enhance colonial coordination within fungal communities [45]. Schmidt et al. investigated that heterologous co-expression of a terpene synthase and a methyltransferase revealed the production of the unusual terpene sodorifen in response to fungal VOCs [46].
Our earlier studies indicated that volatiles emitted by P. polonicum RS1 exhibited the highest toxicity to Drosophila, followed by strains R27, R11, and R21, while R19 showed only low toxicity compared to the control [4]. Although the underlying mechanisms of action remain unknown, the VOC profiles obtained in this study expand our understanding of the studied strains. The observed toxicity appears to correlate with both the composition and abundance of toxic volatile compounds. The highest toxicity of RS1 VOCs compared to the other strains of Penicillium tested likely stems from its substantial production of diverse alkenes (16 VOCs). Further investigation should focus on the biosynthesis and functions of these important alkenes. Evaluating the toxicity of volatile compounds to Drosophila presents a unique set of challenges that extend beyond nominal dosing. The processes of volatility, adsorption, diffusion, and the resultant actual bioactive concentration at the target site are not merely confounding factors; they are central determinants of the observed toxicological outcome. Future work should prioritize headspace concentration measurements to transition from a dose-loaded to a true exposure-based toxicology model, significantly enhancing the fundamental and predictive value of the research.
In the flavor and fragrance industry, compounds such as ethyl isovalerate, α-cedrene, valencian citrusene, and β-bisabolene are valued for their unique aromatic properties and are widely incorporated into food, cosmetics, and tobacco products [47]. In general, many fungal-derived compounds are commercially utilized for scent characteristics [48], while in medicine and healthcare, compounds such as camphene and arbutin have demonstrated bioactivity in areas including cancer treatment, anti-inflammation, and antioxidant effects, providing promising leads for new pharmaceutical development [49].

5. Conclusions

This study investigates the volatile profiles of VOCs derived from five strains of Penicillium species and reveals the presence of diverse compounds (alcohols, aldehydes, and alkenes) that could contribute to the demonstrated toxicity of these volatiles in a Drosophila bioassay. Moreover, these findings also add to the growing body of research that suggests that volatile-phase natural products may serve as an important source of novel therapeutic molecules in the future.

Supplementary Materials

The following supporting information can be downloaded at https://www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/metabo16010037/s1, Figure S1: The GC-MS profiles of five Penicillium strains. (A) PDA control, (B) R11, (C) R19, (D) R21, (E) R27, and (F) RS1; Table S1: The VOCs detected from PDA control.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization and manuscript writing, G.Y., K.K.P. and J.W.B.; writing—review and editing, G.Y., W.C. and T.W.; supervision, G.Y.; project administration, G.Y.; funding acquisition, G.Y. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was partially funded by the Research Program of Qilu Institute of Technology (No: QIT23TP009), while research in the Bennett laboratory has been supported by a cooperative agreement from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and a grant from the Eppley Foundation.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in this study are included in the article/Supplementary Material. Further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Metabolites 16 00037 g001
Figure 1. Categories and relative abundance of VOCs emitted by four Penicillium expansum strains.
Figure 1. Categories and relative abundance of VOCs emitted by four Penicillium expansum strains.
Metabolites 16 00037 g001
Metabolites 16 00037 g002
Figure 2. Categories and relative abundance of VOCs emitted by Penicillium polonicum RS1.
Figure 2. Categories and relative abundance of VOCs emitted by Penicillium polonicum RS1.
Metabolites 16 00037 g002
Table 1. The specific VOCs emitted by the Penicillium expansum R11 strain.
Table 1. The specific VOCs emitted by the Penicillium expansum R11 strain.
CategoryPeak
No.		NameRelative Amount (%) *CAS IDFormulaStructure
Alcohols42-phenylethanol0.33 ± 0.04000060-12-8C8H10OMetabolites 16 00037 i001
273,6,6-trimethyl-2-norpinanol0.54 ± 0.06029548-09-2C10H18OMetabolites 16 00037 i002
321-octadecanol0.27 ± 0.08000112-92-5C18H38OMetabolites 16 00037 i003
Acids1acetic acid0.77 ± 0.060000064-19-7C2H4O2Metabolites 16 00037 i004
32-amino-5-methyl-benzoic acid0.79 ± 0.07002941-78-8C8H9NO2Metabolites 16 00037 i005
16dodecanoic acid0.49 ± 0.07000143-07-7C12H24O2Metabolites 16 00037 i006
28(z, z)-9,12-octadecadienoic acid0.30 ± 0.04000060-33-3C18H32O2Metabolites 16 00037 i007
30octadecanoic acid0.31 ± 0.04000057-11-4C18H36O2Metabolites 16 00037 i008
Aldehydes75-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furancarboxaldehyde0.67 ± 0.06000067-47-0C6H6O3Metabolites 16 00037 i009
10tridecanal0.29 ± 0.04010486-19-8C13H26OMetabolites 16 00037 i010
14octadecanal0.35 ± 0.04000638-66-4C18H36OMetabolites 16 00037 i011
Ketones52,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one0.36 ± 0.06028564-83-2C6H8O4Metabolites 16 00037 i012
Esters8diacetate-1,2,3-propanetriol0.24 ± 0.04025395-31-7C7H12O5Metabolites 16 00037 i013
26hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester0.71 ± 0.05000628-97-7C18H36O2Metabolites 16 00037 i014
31butyric acid dodecyl ester0.44 ± 0.04003724-61-6C16H32O2Metabolites 16 00037 i015
Alkenes2styrene16.24 ± 0.67 a000100-42-5C8H8Metabolites 16 00037 i016
291-eicosene0.79 ± 0.02003452-07-1C20H4OMetabolites 16 00037 i017
Ethers61,3-dimethoxy-benzene5.47 ± 0.06 a000151-10-0C8H10O2Metabolites 16 00037 i018
Alkanes171,2,3-trimethyl-cyclohexane0.43 ± 0.06001678-97-3C9H18Metabolites 16 00037 i019
Phenols152,5-bis(1,1-dimethylethyl)-phenol0.79 ± 0.08005875-45-6C14H22OMetabolites 16 00037 i020
Nitriles21pentadecanenitrile0.29 ± 0.02018300-91-9C15H29NMetabolites 16 00037 i021
Others11cis-1,4-dimethyl-cyclooctane0.36 ± 0.06013151-99-0C10H20Metabolites 16 00037 i022
* Data represent the mean of three biological replicates and standard deviation. a denotes p < 0.05 when compared between R11 and RS1.
Table 2. The specific VOCs emitted by the Penicillium expansum R19 strain.
Table 2. The specific VOCs emitted by the Penicillium expansum R19 strain.
CategoryPeak
No.		NameRelative Amount (%) *CAS IDFormulaStructure
Alcohols1ethyl alcohol5.64 ± 0.16000064-17-5C2H6OMetabolites 16 00037 i023
32-ethyl-1-hexanol 0.69 ± 0.09000104-76-7C8H18OMetabolites 16 00037 i024
42-phenylethanol14.63 ± 0.85000060-12-8C8H10OMetabolites 16 00037 i025
7geosmin
(trans-1,10-dimethyl-trans-9-decalol)		6.94 ± 0.701000121-76-3C12H22OMetabolites 16 00037 i026
83,7,11-trimethyl-1-dodecanol0.41 ± 0.09006750-34-1C15H32OMetabolites 16 00037 i027
14[2R-(2α,4aα,8aβ)]-1,2,3,4,4a,5,6,8a-octahydro-α, α,4a,8-tetramethyl-2-naphthalenemethanol0.51 ± 0.07000473-16-5C15H26OMetabolites 16 00037 i028
Aldehydes15octadecanal0.51 ± 0.05000638-66-4C18H36OMetabolites 16 00037 i029
Ketones245-dodecyldihydro-2(3H)-furanone 0.54 ± 0.04000730-46-1C16H30O2Metabolites 16 00037 i030
Esters5acetic acid 2-ethylhexyl ester0.64 ± 0.06000103-09-3C10H20O2Metabolites 16 00037 i031
23hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester0.87 ± 0.08000628-97-7C18H36O2Metabolites 16 00037 i032
261,2-benzenedicarboxylic acid mono(2-ethylhexyl) ester0.57 ± 0.09004376-20-9C16H22O4Metabolites 16 00037 i033
Alkenes9(Z)-7,11-dimethyl-3-methylene-1,6,10-dodecatriene 4.25 ± 0.15028973-97-9C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i034
13(E)-2-tridecene0.82 ± 0.06041446-58-6C13H26Metabolites 16 00037 i035
163,12-diethyl-2,5,9-tetradecatriene 0.68 ± 0.08074685-87-3C18H32Metabolites 16 00037 i036
Alkanes24-methyl-2-pentanamine 0.44 ± 0.06000108-09-8C6H15NMetabolites 16 00037 i037
6dodecane0.48 ± 0.05000112-40-3C12H26Metabolites 16 00037 i038
Phenols254,4′-(1-methylethylidene)bis-phenol0.45 ± 0.05000080-05-7C15H16O2Metabolites 16 00037 i039
* Data represent the mean of three biological replicates and standard deviation.
Table 3. The specific VOCs emitted by the Penicillium expansum R21 strain.
Table 3. The specific VOCs emitted by the Penicillium expansum R21 strain.
CategoryPeak
No.		NameRelative Amount (%) *CAS IDFormulaStructure
Alcohols1ethyl alcohol6.62 ± 0.21000064-17-5C2H6OMetabolites 16 00037 i040
42-ethyl-1-hexanol0.88 ± 0.10000104-76-7C8H18OMetabolites 16 00037 i041
62-phenylethanol9.12 ± 0.53000060-12-8C8H10OMetabolites 16 00037 i042
166,10,13-trimethyltetradecanol0.49 ± 0.101000131-71-0C17H36OMetabolites 16 00037 i043
24(E)-3,7,11-trimethyl-1,6,10-dodecatrien-3-ol2.96 ± 0.48040716-66-3C15H26OMetabolites 16 00037 i044
262-dodecen-1-ol0.64 ± 0.07022104-81-0C12H24OMetabolites 16 00037 i045
27chrysanthemyl alcohol2.18 ± 0.18018383-59-0C10H18OMetabolites 16 00037 i046
362-hexyl-1-decanol 0.31 ± 0.06002425-77-6C16H34OMetabolites 16 00037 i047
Acids2dl-3-aminobutyric acid0.33 ± 0.04002835-82-7C4H9NO2Metabolites 16 00037 i048
Aldehydes10undecanal0.73 ± 0.06000112-44-7C11H22OMetabolites 16 00037 i049
14dodecanal0.75 ± 0.06000112-54-9C12H24OMetabolites 16 00037 i050
Alkenes3styrene0.36 ± 0.13000100-42-5C8H8Metabolites 16 00037 i051
91-tridecene0.50 ± 0.15002437-56-1C13H26Metabolites 16 00037 i052
111-tetradecene0.30 ± 0.05001120-36-1C14H28Metabolites 16 00037 i053
15(E)-3-octadecene0.75 ± 0.07007206-19-1C18H36Metabolites 16 00037 i054
172,6-dimethyl-6-(4-methyl-3-pentenyl)-bicyclo [3.1.1]hept-2-ene 0.59 ± 0.11017699-05-7C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i055
19(E)-7,11-dimethyl-3-methylene-1,6,10-dodecatriene8.83 ± 0.73018794-84-8C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i056
28(S)-1-methyl-4-(5-methyl-1-methylene-4-hexenyl)-cyclohexene0.37 ± 0.09000495-61-4C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i057
Alkanes5undecane0.51 ± 0.07001120-21-4C11H24Metabolites 16 00037 i058
7dodecane0.93 ± 0.20000112-40-3C12H26Metabolites 16 00037 i059
Nitriles32pentadecanenitrile0.46 ± 0.07018300-91-9C15H29NMetabolites 16 00037 i060
Others84-pyridazinamine1.06 ± 0.09020744-39-2C4H5N3Metabolites 16 00037 i061
* Data represent the mean of three biological replicates and standard deviation.
Table 4. The specific VOCs emitted by the Penicillium expansum R27 strain.
Table 4. The specific VOCs emitted by the Penicillium expansum R27 strain.
CategoryPeak
No.		NameRelative Amount (%) *CAS IDFormulaStructure
Alcohols1ethyl alcohol1.27 ± 0.07000064-17-5C2H6OMetabolites 16 00037 i062
42-phenylethanol6.98 ± 0.26000060-12-8C8H10OMetabolites 16 00037 i063
121-tetracosanol0.33 ± 0.05000506-51-4C24H50OMetabolites 16 00037 i064
18trans-1-methyl-1,2-cyclohexanediol0.58 ± 0.08019534-08-8C7H14O2Metabolites 16 00037 i065
Acids17dodecanoic acid0.54 ± 0.06000143-07-7C12H24O2Metabolites 16 00037 i066
28(E)-9-octadecenoic acid0.56 ± 0.05000112-79-8C18H34O2Metabolites 16 00037 i067
29octadecanoic acid0.36 ± 0.06000057-11-4C18H36O2Metabolites 16 00037 i068
Aldehydes75-(hydroxymethyl)-2-furancarboxaldehyde 0.80 ± 0.05000067-47-0C6H6O3Metabolites 16 00037 i069
8undecanal0.64 ± 0.06000112-44-7C11H22OMetabolites 16 00037 i070
10dodecanal0.52 ± 0.04000112-54-9C12H24OMetabolites 16 00037 i071
19tridecanal0.73 ± 0.13010486-19-8C13H26OMetabolites 16 00037 i072
Ketones52,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-pyran-4-one 0.40 ± 0.06028564-83-2C6H8O4Metabolites 16 00037 i073
Esters27hexadecanoic acid ethyl ester0.42 ± 0.05000628-97-7C18H36O2Metabolites 16 00037 i074
Alkenes112,6-dimethyl-6-(4-methyl-3-pentenyl)-bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene0.52 ± 0.04017699-05-7C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i075
137,11-dimethyl-3-methylene-(E)-1,6,10-dodecatriene4.39 ± 0.16018794-84-8C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i076
Alkanes6dodecane0.29 ± 0.06000112-40-3C12H26Metabolites 16 00037 i077
Ethers21-methoxy-3-methyl-benzene0.51 ± 0.04000100-84-5C8H10OMetabolites 16 00037 i078
Phenols34-methyl-phenol 0.31 ± 0.04000106-44-5C7H8OMetabolites 16 00037 i079
* Data represent the mean of three biological replicates and standard deviation.
Table 5. The specific VOCs emitted by the Penicillium polonicum RS1 strain.
Table 5. The specific VOCs emitted by the Penicillium polonicum RS1 strain.
CategoryPeak
No.		NameRelative Amount (%) *CAS IDFormulaStructure
Alcohols42-phenylethanol0.71 ± 0.04000060-12-8C8H10OMetabolites 16 00037 i080
233,4-dimethylbenzyl alcohol28.15 ± 1.00006966-10-5C9H12OMetabolites 16 00037 i081
30alpha-bisabolol0.27 ± 0.03072691-24-8C15H26OMetabolites 16 00037 i082
Aldehydes7undecanal0.43 ± 0.07000112-44-7C11H22OMetabolites 16 00037 i083
11dodecanal0.26 ± 0.05000112-54-9C12H24OMetabolites 16 00037 i084
38(z)-9-octadecenal0.28 ± 0.04002423-10-1C18H34OMetabolites 16 00037 i085
Esters1ethyl acetate1.94 ± 0.14000141-78-6C4H8O2Metabolites 16 00037 i086
23-methyl-butanoic acid ethyl ester0.38 ± 0.04000108-64-5C7H14O2Metabolites 16 00037 i087
6benzeneacetic acid ethyl ester1.64 ± 0.05000101-97-3C10H12O2Metabolites 16 00037 i088
Alkenes3styrene2.35 ± 0.05000100-42-5C8H8Metabolites 16 00037 i089
12(E)-9-octadecene0.35 ± 0.06007206-25-9C18H36Metabolites 16 00037 i090
13gamma-elemene4.75 ± 0.08030824-67-0C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i091
141,2,4,5-tetramethyl-benzene1.08 ± 0.16000095-93-2C10H14Metabolites 16 00037 i092
15[3R-(3α,3aβ,7β,8aα)]-2,3,4,7,8,8a-hexahydro-3,6,8,8-tetramethyl-1H-3a,7-methanoazulene4.34 ± 0.12000469-61-4C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i093
161-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-4-methyl-benzene0.69 ± 0.06000644-30-4C15H22Metabolites 16 00037 i094
172,6-dimethyl-6-(4-methyl-3-pentenyl)-bicyclo[3.1.1]hept-2-ene0.96 ± 0.07017699-05-7C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i095
183,7,7-trimethyl-11-methylenespiro[5.5]undec-2-ene8.31 ± 0.07018431-82-8C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i096
19(R)-1-methyl-4-(1,2,2-trimethylcyclopentyl)-benzene0.31 ± 0.05016982-00-6C15H22Metabolites 16 00037 i097
20(S)-1-methyl-4-(5-methyl-1-methylene-4-hexenyl)-cyclohexene3.52 ± 0.07000495-61-4C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i098
21(R)-2,4a,5,6,7,8-hexahydro-3,5,5,9-tetramethyl-1H-benzocycloheptene0.41 ± 0.05001461-03-6C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i099
22[S-(R*,S*)]-3-(1,5-dimethyl-4-hexenyl)-6-methylene-cyclohexene1.06 ± 0.12020307-83-9C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i100
24cis-alpha-bisabolene0.97 ± 0.12029837-07-8C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i101
26camphene0.62 ± 0.06000079-92-5C10H16Metabolites 16 00037 i102
27himachala-2,4-diene1.25 ± 0.05060909-27-5C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i103
29[1R-(1α,7β,8aα)]-1,2,3,5,6,7,8,8a-octahydro-1,8a-dimethyl-7-(1-methylethenyl)-naphthalene0.31 ± 0.04004630-07-3C15H24Metabolites 16 00037 i104
Phenols332,3,6-trimethyl-phenol0.25 ± 0.05002416-94-6C9H12OMetabolites 16 00037 i105
Others51,3-dimethoxy-benzene0.32 ± 0.04000151-10-0C8H10O2Metabolites 16 00037 i106
81-isopropyl-3-tert-butylbenzene9.42 ± 0.12020033-12-9C13H20Metabolites 16 00037 i107
9cis-octahydro-2-oxabicyclo[4.4.0]decane-2H-1-benzopyran0.44 ± 0.04060416-19-5C9H16OMetabolites 16 00037 i108
105,6,7,8-tetrahydro-2-naphthalenamine3.20 ± 0.21002217-43-8C10H13NMetabolites 16 00037 i109
* Data represent the mean of three biological replicates and standard deviation.
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Yin, G.; Pennerman, K.K.; Chen, W.; Wu, T.; Bennett, J.W. Characterization of Volatile Organic Compounds Released by Penicillium expansum and Penicillium polonicum. Metabolites 2026, 16, 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo16010037

AMA Style

Yin G, Pennerman KK, Chen W, Wu T, Bennett JW. Characterization of Volatile Organic Compounds Released by Penicillium expansum and Penicillium polonicum. Metabolites. 2026; 16(1):37. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo16010037

Chicago/Turabian Style

Yin, Guohua, Kayla K. Pennerman, Wenpin Chen, Tao Wu, and Joan W. Bennett. 2026. "Characterization of Volatile Organic Compounds Released by Penicillium expansum and Penicillium polonicum" Metabolites 16, no. 1: 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo16010037

APA Style

Yin, G., Pennerman, K. K., Chen, W., Wu, T., & Bennett, J. W. (2026). Characterization of Volatile Organic Compounds Released by Penicillium expansum and Penicillium polonicum. Metabolites, 16(1), 37. https://doi.org/10.3390/metabo16010037

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