Terminological and Grammatical Study of Essential and Fatty Oils of Plants from the Austrian, Hungarian, Spanish, and Belgian Pharmacopoeias (19th Century)

Abstract

In this study, a terminological and grammatical survey of essential and fatty oils of plant origin was performed in the selected Austrian, Hungarian, Spanish, and Belgian pharmacopoeias from the 18th to 19th centuries. The Latin-language prescriptions were analysed for their content, sections, and indications, and then translated from Latin into English, and supplemented with the source plants. Oil types were categorised based on their preparation and origin. Most oils belong to essential oils in Ph. Austriaca I–IV, Ph. Belgica, and Ph. Hungarica I (20 in each). Cooked oils are described as having the highest number in Ph. Hispanica (21), while pressed oils are also included in a high ratio in Ph. Hisp. (18) and Ph. Austriaca V (15). At the same time, those from minerals are described only in Ph. Belg. (2) and Ph. Hisp. (5). Latin terms are used in preparation methods, including the most concise descriptions in Ph. Austriaca V and Ph. Hg. I. This comprehensive study provides new linguistic data on the oils of herbs in the selected pharmacopoeias. Studies of essential oils have recently been progressing, and this analysis might help in understanding information from old pharmacopoeias.

1. Introduction

Herbal drugs and their use in traditional and official medicine have played a significant role worldwide for many years. The first written sources of drugs and preparations of plant origin have been documented from the Ancient Mesopotamia, Egypt, and Greece, as well as Roman, Chinese, Persian and Arabic culture, for example, Hippocratic Corpus (5–4th century B.C.E.), Historia plantarum by Teophrastus (ca. 371–ca. 287 B.C.E.), De Materia Medica by Dioscorides (50–70 C.E.), and some herbal data in works by Galen (129–200 C.E.) from the head to the toes (in Latin: ‘de capite ad calcem’). Medieval monastery cultures were engaged in the cultivation of herbs in kitchen and medicinal plant gardens (namely hortus and hortulus), which were created and maintained by various orders. In this era, Cassiodorus played a significant role in the preservation of medical knowledge in the Roman Empire, describing approximately 560 works that included 500 plants. Also, in this era, translation schools were established in the Iberian Peninsula and Italy. In the Benedictine monastery of Monte Cassino in Salerno, Constantinus Africanus (11th century) translated Arabic medicinal works into Latin, which led to the city being known as Salerno Civitas Hippocratica. The Antidotarium Nicolai can also be mentioned, dating from the 12th–13th century, which modernised 175 prescriptions from previous antidotaries by reducing the enormous number of components to 20–30 [1,2,3].

Within raw materials of herbal origin, essential and fatty oils are among the oldest natural products documented in the earliest manuscripts produced by humans. Their usage in pharmacy, as well as in related fields such as the cosmetic or food industries, remains firmly established even today [4,5,6,7]. Recently, the significance of plant-derived and essential oils has been increasing, and these compounds possess various therapeutic effects. The essential oils are concentrated, volatile compounds extracted from specific parts of plants and show promising potential in multiple aspects of healthcare, including antimicrobial (as antibiotic alternatives), anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and cytotoxic activities [8,9,10]. The wide distribution and long-term stability of these raw materials in the history of medicine make it possible to study their occurrence in relevant written historical sources related to fields such as pharmacy, medicine, and botany, among others, and provide detailed analyses from various perspectives.

The concept of official pharmaceutical standards (also known as antidotarium, dispensatorium, enchiridion, receptarium, and pharmacopoeia) was first established in the city republics of the Renaissance period (e.g., Florence, Nuremberg, Augsburg). The 18th and 19th centuries in most European political units and countries represent a period of the emergence and consolidation of state-controlled and guaranteed healthcare systems. The contemporary “health police” is based on the first comprehensive and interconnected measures, and issued by monarchs or other central authorities, which significantly affected the state’s guarantee of the quality of medicines. In several countries, pharmacopoeial publications with nationwide validity were issued, which gradually replaced previously published pharmacopoeias of a local/city or regional character. Their generally obligatory character thus unified the requirements for pharmaceutical products and their provision [11]. These pharmacopoeias are valuable sources for historical analyses of various aspects of the history of medicine, including terminology. Their purpose was also to standardize and unify the identification of raw materials, intermediate products, and final medicinal products, which were compounded and dispensed to patients in pharmacies.

The first statewide pharmacopoeia of the Habsburg Monarchy was published in connection with the comprehensive reform and centralization of the healthcare system, associated with the reign of the enlightened absolutist Empress Maria Theresa (1740–1780). In this era, significant medical reforms were introduced, e.g., the regulation entitled “Generale normativum sanitatis” (1770) included the requirement to publish a new pharmacopoeia. The pharmacopoeia was first published under the title “Pharmacopoea Austriaco-provincialis” in Latin in 1774, and subsequently in several other editions until 1794. Its validity applied to all provinces of the Habsburg Monarchy. Since 1812, it was replaced by the “Pharmacopoea Austriaca” (Ph. Austriaca), which was published in a total of eight editions between the 19th and early 20th centuries, until 1918 [12,13,14,15,16]. This pharmacopoeia was also written in Latin, as a language of universal professional communication in the multiethnic empire [17]. The political and administrative transformation of the Austrian Empire into the dualist Austro-Hungarian Monarchy (1867) started the era of the own national pharmacopoeia for the Hungarian part of the Monarchy, such as the independent “Hungarian Pharmacopoeia” (Ph. Hg. I, 1st edition in 1871) [18], which replaced the previously used Austrian Pharmacopoeia in the territory of the Hungarian Kingdom. The first editions of the Hungarian Pharmacopoeia were bilingual, using Hungarian and Latin [1].

The first edition of the Spanish national pharmacopoeia, entitled “Pharmacopoeia Matritensis,” was also issued during the Enlightenment period in the 18th century and published in 1739. Matritensis, as a Latin adjective referring to origin from Madrid, is used in the taxonomy and terminology of species and subspecies of plants and animals that originate from Madrid or its surrounding environment (e.g., Euphorbia matritensis). Its name had been changed to “Pharmacopoeia Hispana” in the first edition of 1794, then to Pharmacopoea Hispanica (Ph. Hisp.) of 1826 [19]. The fifth Spanish Pharmacopoeia (“Farmacopea Española”, 1865) was the first edition to be written in the Castilian language, replacing the Latin used in previous editions [20].

The pharmacopeial history of the so-called Low Countries (Benelux, including the territory of modern-day Belgium) is closely related to the political history of this region. After adapting various editions of earlier pharmacopoeia publications, the first “national” pharmacopoeia for the territory, entitled “Pharmacopoea Batava,” was issued in 1805, during the existence of the Batavian Republic (1795–1806). It also remained in force during the following political eras of the Kingdom of Holland and the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and was replaced by “Pharmacopoea Belgica” (Ph. Belg.) in 1823 [21]. The next edition, “Pharmacopoea Belgica Nova” was published in 1854 for the Kingdom of Belgium, which became independent in 1831 [11]. The regularity of publication makes the Ph. Austriaca suitable for following up on linguistic and structural changes. The Ph. Hg. The bilingual national pharmacopoeia can be directly connected to its precedents (Ph. Austriaca I–V). The Ph. Hisp. and Ph. Belg. were chosen from two different geopolitical locations, and their data may reveal a distinct perspective on other regions of Europe.

In general, the modern era of the 18th and 19th centuries led to the simplification of pharmacopoeias, reflecting the simplification of the materia medica, which was interconnected with scientific advances in chemistry, botany, and medicine. As can be seen from the examples above, the pharmacopeial history of a particular state is closely related to its political history. The cultural relationships reflected in the pharmacopoeial literature are conveyed through the language used in the publications. While earlier editions of modern pharmacopoeias, especially in multilingual political units, predominantly used the Latin language throughout their texts, later editions began to incorporate the national language in connection with national revival movements and revolutions that led to the political independence of nations. In later editions and contemporary pharmacopoeia publications, the Latin language is preserved in the titles of the pharmacopoeia monographs. Over the last few decades, the trend of internationalisation of pharmacopeial recommendations or official standards has given rise to a modern “lingua franca”, especially English, French, or other globally used languages.

Our work aimed to study the terms, grammatical, terminological, and specialised linguistic data of Latin terminology related to essential and fatty oils of plants, as described in the aforementioned Ph. Austriaca I–V and Ph. Hg. I published in the 19th century, whose data were compared to those obtained from Ph. Hisp. (1826) and Ph. Belg. (1823), published in a similar historical period. The study focuses on the changes, similarities, overlaps, and differences in the content and grammar of the indicated Latin recipes for essential and fatty oils of plants, as well as the structure of the selected pharmacopoeias related to the mentioned herbal oils. There is limited available information on these historic publications, which sometimes contain informative or inspiring data. Sometimes, navigating the field of older nomenclature can be challenging; moreover, educational and safety reasons can also be cited for the accurate understanding of changes in Latin nomenclature.

2. Materials and Methods

As a first step, a thorough review of the structure of the selected eight pharmacopoeias (Figure 1) was conducted to assess their content, sections, and key points. Then, all terms and definitions of essential and fatty oils of plants were collected, noted, and arranged into tables. This step focused on the origin, source, and place of the mentioned oils. Prescriptions for all oil types in the studied works are presented in tables as Supplementary Materials.

Terminological analysis: The Latin terminology of the prescription and indication of the oils was translated from Latin into English, with examples provided in this work at several stages. First, bilingual dictionaries were used for basic translation [22,23], completed with the use of medieval Latin dictionaries [24], dictionaries of specialised languages, as well as botanical–anatomical and terminological expressions [25,26], Pharmaceutical Lexicon in Latin, pharmaceutical terminology textbooks, and teaching supplements of the University of Pécs [27,28,29]. After the rough translation, the linguistic considerations were followed by the clarification of the translation. The specialised meanings used in the pharmaceutical field should be considered [30,31]. In step 3, based on the production method, the oils were classified by arranging them into tables. The headings of the tables indicate the analysis criteria and the exact name, date, and place of origin of the studied pharmacopoeias.

A grammatical analysis of the prescription structure of the described oils was conducted in all selected works. The systematisation was therefore carried out in two large groups, considering terminological and grammatical aspects. All the collected characteristic terms and grammatical expressions are also tabulated. The main elements of the evaluation were the following: name and group of oils, recipe translation features, and observations on terminological and grammatical aspects. Essential and fatty oils were counted in each pharmacopoeia. Terminological evaluation involves the following aspects of the mentioned oils: the number of oils under multiple names, substance names, quantities/units of measure, abbreviations, preparation methods, packaging, and expressions related to time. Grammatical analyses were conducted according to the typical Latin grammatical forms and structures used when writing the prescription. The following grammatical phenomena were employed in the table: imperatives, passive verbs, prepositions, abbreviations, comparison of adjectives and adverbs, participial clauses, and absolute constructions.

Additional aspects of observations: Are there definitions of essential and fatty oils in the selected works, which can be tabulated under the name of oils, followed by terminological and grammatical analyses in the Latin text of their prescription? Are they given in alphabetical order, and are there articles or detailed descriptions? Is the prescription translated with the classic “recipe” inscription? A plus sign was applied in the tables in the case of the Latin phrase “prepared as ... oil”, which was completed with additional terms for specific oils. Among other aspects, the unit of measurement, quantity, time, means of distillation/boiling/pressing, as well as the Latin terminology used in presentation, can be mentioned.

In the study, the tested era was the one with scientific demand. The Ph. Austriacas with the regular time-framed editions seemed like ideal choices to follow up on the grammatical and structural changes. The Ph. Hg. I, although being a national pharmacopoeia, adheres to the Ph. Austriaca V.

3. Results

3.1. Oil Types in the Selected Pharmacopoeias

All of the selected pharmacopoeias contain oils of plant origins, completed with oils of animal (1-1 oil in Ph. Austriaca I–V, 6 in Ph. Belg., and 9 in Ph. Hisp.), mineral (2 in Ph. Belg. and 5 Ph. Hisp.), and chemical origin. Essential and fatty oils of herbs were classified and described according to various criteria, in order to review and understand the differences in their terminology and grammar in the studied works.

The described essential and fatty oils of herbs were classified based on the preparations, including four main categories in the selected pharmacopoeias (Figure 2). Within the terminology, pressed, cooked, distilled, and infused oils were separated.

The largest group in Ph. Austriaca I–III, Ph. Hisp., and Ph. Hg. I consists of distilled oils, each containing 20 such entries. Their number is slightly lower in Ph. Austriaca IV–V (16 and 15, respectively), and in Ph. Belg. (16).

The number of infused or cooked oils is exceptionally high in Ph. Hisp. (21), compared to only 2-4 such oils in the other studied pharmacopoeias.

Cold-pressed oils significantly increase in Ph. Hisp. (18) and Ph. Austriaca V (15) in nearly the same quantity as distilled oils (18). This group also shows a notably high count. In the other selected works, only 3, 5, or 6 oils are described as being prepared using this method. The other category includes oils of mixed origin and cannot be appropriately classified into any of the mentioned groups.

3.2. Criteria for Description of the Oil Types in the Studied Works

Terminological and grammatical analysis of the Latin language of oils and prescriptions in the selected pharmacopoeias is shown in

Table 1. Distilled/essential ¹ and fatty oils ² of source plants in Pharmacopoea Austriaca I–V (names of plant sources follow the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, until 2011).

Plant Source of the Described Oils	Ph. Austriaca I (1812)	Ph. Austriaca II (1814)	Ph. Austriaca III (1820)	Ph. Austriaca IV (1834)	Ph. Austriaca V (1855)
Cannabis sativa L.	Oleum pressum seminum cannabis 2	Oleum pressum seminum cannabis 2	_	_	_
Carum carvi L.	Oleum seminum carvi 1	Oleum seminum carvi 1	Oleum seminum carvi 1	Oleum seminum carvi 1	Oleum Carvi 1
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl	_	_	_	_	Oleum camphoratum 1
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl	OLEUM DESTILLATUM CINNAMOMI 1	OLEUM DESTILLATUM CINNAMOMI 1	OLEUM DESTILLATUM CINNAMOMI 1	OLEUM DESTILLATUM CINNAMOMI 1	Oleum Cinnamomi 1
Citrus bergamia Risso	Oleum corticum citri 1	Oleum corticum citri 1	Oleum corticum citri 1	Oleum corticum citri 1	Oleum Bergamottae 1
Citrus medica L.	Oleum corticum citri 1	Oleum corticum citri 1	Oleum corticum citri 1	Oleum corticum citri 1	Oleum Citri 1
Citrus × aurantium L.	Oleum corticum venale/ Oleum de Bergamo 1	Oleum corticum venale/ Oleum de Bergamo 1	Oleum corticum venale/Oleum de Bergamo 1	Oleum corticum venale/Oleum de Bergamo 1	Oleum Aurantiorum corticum/ Oleum Aurantii florum/Oleum Neroli 1
Croton tiglium L.	_	_	_	_	Oleum Crotinis Tiglii 2
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Oleum seminum foeniculi 1	Oleum seminum foeniculi 1	Oleum seminum foeniculi 1	Oleum seminum foeniculi 1	Oleum Foeniculi 1
Hyoscyamus niger L.	_	_	_	OLEUM FOLIORUM HYOSCIAMI COCTUM	Oleum Hyosciami foliorum coctum 1 Oleum Hyosciami seminum pressum 2
Juglans regia L.	_	_	_	_	Oleum Juglandis nucum 2 Oleum Nucis moschatae 1 Balsamum Nucistae 1
Juniperus communis L.	Oleum baccarum juniperi maturarum 1	Oleum baccarum juniperi maturarum 1	Oleum baccarum juniperi maturarum 1	Oleum baccarum juniperi maturarum 1	Oleum Juniperi baccarum 1
Juniperus foetidissima Willd.	Oleum foliorum sabinae 1	Oleum foliorum sabinae 1	Oleum foliorum sabinae 1	_	_
Laurus nobilis L.	OLEUM EXCOCTUM LAURI 1	OLEUM EXCOCTUM LAURI 1	OLEUM EXCOCTUM LAURI 1	OLEUM EXCOCTUM LAURI 1	Oleum Lauri 1
Lavandula latifolia Medik.	Oleum florum lavandulae 1	Oleum florum lavandulae 1	Oleum florum lavandulae 1	Oleum florum lavandulae 1	Oleum Lavandulae 1
Lilium candidum L.	_	_	_	_	Oleum Liliorum 1
Linum usitatissimum L.	Oleum pressum seminum lini 2	Oleum pressum seminum lini 2	Oleum pressum seminum lini 2	Oleum pressum seminum lini 2	Oleum Lini seminum 2
Matricaria recutita L.	Oleum herbae chamomillae vulgaris floridae 1	Oleum herbae chamomillae vulgaris floridae 1	Oleum herbae chamomillae vulgaris floridae 1	Oleum herbae chamomillae vulgaris floridae 1	Oleum Chamomillae 1
Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L.	_	_	_	_	Oleum Cajeputi depuratum 1
Mentha spicata L. subsp. spicata	Oleum herbae menthae crispae 1	Oleum herbae menthae crispae 1	Oleum herbae menthae crispae 1	Oleum menthae crispae 1	Oleum Menthae crispae 1
Mentha × piperita L.	Oleum herbae menthae piperitae 1	Oleum herbae menthae piperitae 1	Oleum herbae menthae piperitae 1	Oleum menthae piperitae 1	Oleum Menthae piperitae 1 Oleum Macidis 1
Olea europaea L.	Oleum Olivarum 2	Oleum Olivarum 2	Oleum Olivarum 2	Oleum Olivarum 2	Oleum Olivarum 2
Origanum majorana L.	_	_	_	_	Oleum Majoranae 1
Origanum vulgare L.	Oleum herbae origani 1	Oleum herbae origani 1	Oleum herbae origani 1	_	_
Papaver somniferum L.	Oleum pressum seminum papaveris 2	Oleum pressum seminum papaveris 2	_	_	Oleum Papaveris albi 2
Pimpinella aromatica M.Bieb.	OLEUM DESTILLATUM ANISI 1	OLEUM DESTILLATUM ANISI 1	OLEUM DESTILLATUM ANISI 1	OLEUM DESTILLATUM ANISI 1	Oleum Anisi 1
Pinus silvestris L. Pinus laryx L.	OLEUM DESTILLATUM TEREBINTHINAE 1	OLEUM DESTILLATUM TEREBINTHINAE 1	OLEUM DESTILLATUM TEREBINTHINAE 1	OLEUM DESTILLATUM TEREBINTHINAE 1	Oleum Terebinthinae commune 1 Oleum Terebinthinae rectificatum 1 Spiritus Terebinthinae 1
Prunus amygdalus Batsch	OLEUM PRESSUM AMYGDALARUM 2	OLEUM PRESSUM AMYGDALARUM 2	OLEUM PRESSUM AMYGDALARUM 2	OLEUM PRESSUM AMYGDALARUM 2	Oleum Amygdalarum dulcium 2
Prunus persica (L.) Stokes	Oleum foliorum persicae 1	Oleum foliorum persicae 1	Oleum foliorum persicae 1	_	_
Rosa gallica L. Rosa centifolia L.	_	_	_	_	Oleum Rosarum 1
Ruta graveolens L.	Oleum herbae rutae 1	Oleum herbae rutae 1	Oleum herbae rutae 1	_	Oleum Rutae 1
Salvia officinalis L.	Oleum herbae salviae 1	Oleum herbae salviae 1	Oleum herbae salviae 1	Oleum salviae 1	_
Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.	Oleum herbae rosmarini 1	Oleum herbae rosmarini 1	Oleum herbae rosmarini 1	Oleum herbae rosmarini 1	Oleum Rosmarini 1 Oleum Anthos 1
Syzygium aromaticum (L.) Merr. & L.M.Perry	Oleum caryophyllorum (Oleum destillatum venale) 1	Oleum caryophyllorum (Oleum destillatum venale) 1	Oleum caryophyllorum (Oleum destillatum venale) 1	Oleum caryophyllorum (Oleum destillatum venale) 1	Oleum Caryophyllorum 1
Tanacetum vulgare L.	Oleum herbae tanaceti 1	Oleum herbae tanaceti 1	Oleum herbae tanaceti 1	Oleum herbae tanaceti 1	_
Theobroma cacao L.	Oleum excoctum seminum cacao 2	Oleum excoctum seminum cacao, leviter tostorum et decorticatorum 2	Oleum excoctum seminum cacao, leviter tostorum et decorticatorum 2	Oleum excoctum seminum cacao, leviter tostorum et decorticatorum 2	Oleum Cacao unguinosum/ Butyrum Cacao 2
Thymus serpyllum L.	Oleum herbae serpylli floridae 1	Oleum herbae serpylli floridae 1	Oleum herbae serpylli floridae 1	Oleum serpylli floridae 1	_
Valeriana officinalis L.	Oleum radicis valerianae sylvestris 1	Oleum radicis valerianae sylvestris 1	Oleum radicis valerianae sylvestris 1	Oleum radicis valerianae sylvestris 1	Oleum Valerianae 1

,

Table 2. Distilled/essential ¹ and fatty oils ² of source plants in Pharmacopoea Hungarica I.

Plant Source of the Described Oils	Ph. Hungarica I. (1871)
Brassica nigra (L.) W.D.J.Koch	Oleum Sinapis aethereum 2
Carum carvi L.	Oleum Carvi 1
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J.Presl	Oleum camphoratum 1
Citrus aurantium L.	Oleum Aurantii florum 1 Oleum Neroli 1 Oleum Aurantiorum corticum 1
Citrus bergamia Risso	Oleum Bergamottae 1
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck	Oleum Citri 1 Oleum de Cedro 1
Croton tiglium L.	Oleum Crotonis tiglii 2
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.	Oleum Foeniculi 1
Hyoscyamus niger L.	Oleum Hyosciami foliorum coctum 1
Juniperus communis L.	Oleum Juniperi 1
Juniperus oxycedrus L.	Oleum Cadinum 1 Oleum Juniperi 1 Oleum empyreumaticum 1
Laurus nobilis L.	Oleum Lauri 1
Lavandula angustifolia L. subsp. angustifolia	Oleum Lavandulae 1
Linum usitatissimum L.	Oleum Lini lotum 2
Mentha spicata L. subsp. spicata	Oleum Mentha crispae 1
Mentha × piperita L.	Oleum Menthae piperitae 1
Myristica fragrans Houtt. Myristica moschata L.	Oleum Nucis Moschatae 1 Balsamum Nucistae 1 Oleum Nucistae 1 Oleum Macidis 1
Neolitsea cassia (L.) Kosterm.	Oleum Cinnamomi/ Oleum cassiae cinnamomeae 1
Olea europaea L.	Oleum Olivarum 2
Pimpinella aromatica M.Bieb.	Oleum Anisi 1
Pinus silvestris L.	Oleum Terebinthinae rectificatum 1 Spiritus Terebenthinae 1
Prunus amygdalus Batsch	Oleum Amygdalarum dulcium 2
Ricinus communis L.	Oleum Ricini 2 Oleum palmae Christi 2 Oleum Castoris 2
Rosa centifolia L. Rosa damascena Mill.	Oleum Rosarum 1
Salvia rosmarinus Spenn.	Oleum Rosmarini 1 Oleum Anthos 1
section	Oleum Caryophyllorum 1
Theobroma cacao L.	Oleum Cacao 2 Butyrum cacao 2
Valeriana officinalis L.	Oleum Valerianae 1

and

Table 3. Distilled/essential ¹ and fatty oils ² of source plants in the Pharmacopoea Belgica and the Pharmacopoea Hispanica.

Plant Source of the Described Oils	Ph. Belgica (1823)	Ph. Hispanica (1826)
Althaea officinalis L.	_	Oleum Althaeae ex radicibus 1
Artemisia vulgaris L.	OLEUM ABSINTHII 1	OLEUM ABSINTHII 1
Bryonia alba L.	_	OLEUM BRYONIAE COMPOSITUM (Agrippae) 2
Cannabis sativa L.	_	Oleum Seminum Cannabis 1
Carum carvi L.	OLEUM CARUI 1	Oleum Seminis Carvi et similium 1
Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All.	OLEUM CHAMAEMELI INFUSUM 1	_
Cinnamomum verum J.Presl	-	Oleum Cinnamomi 1
Citrus limon (L.) Osbeck	_	OLEUM LIMONUM 1
Citrus × aurantium L.	OLEUM AURANTIORUM 1	_
Corylus avellana L.	_	Oleum Avellanarum 2
Crocus sativus L.	_	OLEUM CROCI 1
Cucurbita pepo L.	_	OLEUM CUCURBITAE PLEURITICUM 1 (Balsamum Pleuriticum)
Olea europaea L.	OLIVARUM OLEUM 2	OLEUM OLIVARUM 2 EMPYREUMATICUM (Laterum) 2
Papaver somniferum L.	_	Oleum Seminum Papaveris Albi 2
Pimpinella aromatica M.Bieb.	OLEUM ANISI 1	OLEUM SEMINIS ANISI 1
Pinus abies L. Pinus larix L. Pinus silvestris L.	OLEUM TEREBINTHINAE SULPHURATUM 1 (Balsamum sulphuris Terebinthinum)	OLEUM TEREBINTHINAE SULPHURATUM 1 (Balsamum sulphuris Terebinthinum)
Prunus amygdalus Stokes	OLEUM AMYGDALARUM 2	OLEUM AMYGDALARUM DULCIUM 2 Oleum Amygdalarum Amarum 2
Ricinus communis L.	OLEUM RICINI 2	Oleum Seminum Ricini dempto prius cortice 2
Rosa canina L. Rosa centifolia L. Rosa gallica L.	_	OLEUM ROSARUM 1

. Firstly, various characteristic criteria were established for the classification and description of all oil types in the studied works, involving preparation method, list, definition, expressions, and recipes. The used terms were correct, and the data overlapped in most cases. Differences were found in the case of the structure and classification of oils (e.g., Ph. Belg. and Ph. Hisp.), and in the descriptions without detailed preparation methods (e.g., in Ph. Hg. I).

3.2.1. Preparation of Oils

Based on the preparation, numerical data were collected on the terminology of the oils, including the following terms:

-

oleum pressum, oleum expressum

-

oleum coctum, oleum excoctum

-

oleum destillatum

-

oleum infusum

-

oleum per deliquium

-

oleum de Bergamo

-

and oleum animale aethereum = oleum Dippelii.

3.2.2. List and Definition of Oils

Expression of oils as olea/olea aetherea, and the phrase for “simple oil” (oleum venale) were also examined, according to the following divisions:

(a) Oils listed alphabetically, without order or by article number, which are accompanied by detailed Latin descriptions and characteristics;

(b) Occurrence of the definition of essential oil.

3.2.3. Latin Expressions of Oils

Latin expressions translated from, e.g., “prepared like …oil” were also collected, including detailed preparation methods for some oils, followed by a list of other oils to be prepared in the same way.

3.2.4. Recipe of the Oils

The occurrence of the classical “Recipe” formula was selected in the description or preparation instructions of the oils in Terminological and Grammatical Notes.

3.3. Terminological Notes of Herbal Oils in the Selected Pharmacopoeias

Among the terminological notes of the oils, nine observations were described, detailed with examples from all the studied pharmacopoeias.

3.3.1. Number of Oils Appearing Under Multiple Names (Table 1, Table 2 and Table 3)

Ph. Austriaca I: 2, e.g., Oleum corticum venale/Oleum de Bergamo

Ph. Austriaca V: 8, e.g., Oleum Aurantii florum/Oleum Neroli

Ph. Belg.: 6, e.g., Oleum Cacao/Butyrum Cacao

Ph. Hisp.: 13, e.g., Oleum Olivarum Empyreumaticum/ Laterum

Ph. Hg. I: 9, e.g., Oleum Citri/Oleum de Cedro

3.3.2. Use of Alternative Terms for Oils

Ph. Austriaca I: coctum or excoctum

Ph. Austriaca V: contusum or excoctum

Ph. Belg.: Oleum…/Balsamum…; e.g., Oleum Lini Sulphuratum/Balsamum Lini Simplex

Ph. Hisp.: Oleum…/Balsamum…; e.g., Oleum Stramonii compositum/Balsamum Tranquillans

Ph. Hg. I: Oleum…vel Balsamum…, Oleum…vel Butyrum…, Oleum… vel Spiritus…; e.g., Oleum Nucis moschatae/Balsamum Nucistae (Table 2).

Various terms are documented for the colour, fragrance, flavour, and solubility of all oil types in all studied works. As a decolour or colourless item, coloris expers of 15 oils were described.

Examples for the colour: coloris subflavi, flavo et al.bo, flavescenti album, pallide flavo, subviridi flavum/subflavum aut fuscum, flavescens, tenue, rectilicatum decolor, colorem purpureorubrum, in violaceam transeuntem, colore pallido flavo, colorem rutilo-fuscum ct scdimentum sordide aurantiacum exoritur, obscure fuscum, coloris mellei aut e flavo fusci, fere decolor aut flavi aut aurantiaci, colore flavo, colore albo, coloris flavo-brunei; viride, coloris aut aurantiaci aut e flavo et al.bo variegati.

Examples for the fragrance as odour: sit odoris fragrantissimi inodorum, odoris grati seminum, ex elacopteni volatilis odori 1/3 et stearo-pteni inodori 2/3 partibus, odoris specilici ingrati, odoris et saporis debilis piscini, odoris fortioris, odoris et saporis fragrantis Myristicae moschatae, odoris expers.

Examples for the flavour as sapor: saporis grati cum aliqua amaritudine, saporis cum aliqua acredine amaro-aromatici, sapore urentis aromatici, Saporis et odoris minus amoeni, jodo sub evolutione caloris et vaporis explodit (Ol. Juniperi), jodo magnum calorem et multum vaporem evolvens, detonit (Ol. Lavandulae), saporis urentis refrigerantis, saporis mitis, non rancidi, saporis initio oleosi rnitis, saporis amaricantis, saporis et odoris expers, saporis blandi.

Examples for the solubility as solubilitas: e partibus tribus partis stearopteni et una quarta elaeopteni, in aequali parte, in dimidia parte spiritus vini 90%/partibus quinque/aequali parte, in septem partibus/sub omni proportione, spiritus vini 90%, in alcohole 90% 10–12 partibus solubile, in pari pondere spiritus vini 90% solvendum, solvitur, in aquae partibus quinquaginta, in partibus septem spiritus vini 90%, in aqua parum, in spiritus vini 10% solubile, in alcohole paulo, magis (in calore 7%) solubile, in alcoholi e parte et in sesqui partibus aetheris solubile, in alcohole magna parte et in quattuor partibus aetheris, ferventis plane solubile; in alcohole paululo, magis (in calore 7%) solubile, in alcohole e parte et in sesqui partibus aetheris solubile, in alcohole magna parte et in quattuor partibus aetheris ferventis plane solubile, in alcohole difficulter el in aethere facile solubile, in spiritu vini concentratu solubile magnitudinis pisi.

3.3.3. Substances Found in Oils

Ph. Austriaca I: Corticis cinnamomi

Ph. Austriaca V: Florum Chamomillae

Ph. Belg.: Amygdalarum recentium

Ph. Hisp.: seminum Anisi

Ph. Hg. I: Amygdalarum dulcium

3.3.4. Expressions for Quantities/Units of Measure

Ph. Austriaca I: libra

Ph. Austriaca V: libra, uncia

Ph. Belg.: uncia, drachma, libra

Ph. Hisp.: uncia, drachma, libra, scrupulum;

Ph. Hg. I: gramma/grammata

3.3.5. Abbreviation of Quantity and Preparation of Oils

Ph. Austriaca I: q.s., q.v. = quantum satis, quot vis

Ph. Austriaca V: q.s., q.v.

Ph. Belg.: R.) = Recipe

Ph. Hisp.: R.), Q.V., S.A. = semper agitur/sine aqua, C.C. = concentratus, Q.S.

Ph. Hg. I: Rp., spec. = species

3.3.6. Terminology of Preparation of Oils

Terms related to the preparation methods of herbal oils including (e.g., pressing, distillation), were found as follows:

Ph. Austriaca I: sub prelo, laminis…calefactis, retorta vitrea, vesica cum alembico stanneo, in balneo arenae ad dimidium;

Ph. Austriaca V: sub prelo, laminis…calefactis, sacculus linteus, charta inclusa, retorta vitrea tubulata, vesica cum alembico stanneo;

Ph. Belg.: infundibulo vitreo, filis gossypinis, prelo calido, mortuario lapideo panno cannabino, retorta vitrea, retorta ferrea, retorta terrea, vesica cuprea;

Ph. Hisp.: vase idoneo, vase ferreo, vase fictili, vase vitreo, igne moderato, calido loco, mortario marmoreo calefacto, mortario m. pistillo, mortario ferreo, mortario lapideo, prelo calefacto, prelo calido, alembico, retorta vitrea (balneo arenae, spathula, radula, infundibulum, calefacto pinsito;

Ph. Hg. I: in prelo frigido, in prelio ejusdem, temperaturae fortissime exprimetur, coque igne moderato, sub agitatione continua ad humidi consumptionem, coctione cum aqua et expressione obtentum, in praelo leniter calefacto, in mortario ferreo, in prelio, in prelo calefacto

3.3.7. Packaging of Oils

Ph. Austriaca I: lagenula vitrea

Ph. Austriaca V: langenula vitrea, charta bibula

Ph. Belg.: vase clauso, excipulum vitreum, tubum vitreum, lagenulam, lagenis vitreis;

Ph. Hisp.: vase obturato, sacculo linteo, sacculo cannabino, modulos papyraceos;

Ph. Hg. I: in foliis involutis, in capsulas chartaceas

3.3.8. Expressions Indicating Quantity

Ph. Austriaca I: quantitas sufficiens, quantitas desiderata, seminis copia, nullum amplius oleum

Ph. Austriaca V: parte aequali

Ph. Belg.: tota massa, duae tertiae partes, aquae tertiae partes, quartam partem ponderis, quantum velis, cum sextuplo aquae

Ph. Hisp.: dosis, plures, ana (uncia duas), dimidia, tota massa;

Ph. Hg. I: majori vel minori quantitate

3.3.9. Terminology Related to Time of Preparations

Ph. Austriaca I: toties cohobetur, per viginti quattuor horas (macerentur), cum priore servetur, iterumque destilletur, per mediam horam

Ph. Austriaca V: macera per duodecim horas, toties cohobetur, toties repete, donec…fuerit iterumque destilletur, quamdiu…prodierit, statim…immitte

Ph. Belg.: donec, interdum, dein, iterum, quamdiu, tertia cohobatione, mox, eo tempore, postquam, tandem, aliquot dierum

Ph. Hisp.: postea, statim, tunc, paululum, donec, toties (repete), per horas, per biduum, -triduum, -quatriduum, -octiduum, per septimanam, iterum, diutissime, assidue.

Ph. Hg. I: per diem, per longius tempus

3.4. Grammatical Notes of Herbal Oils in the Selected Pharmacopoeias

Grammatical notes of the described herbal oils explore 11 frequent grammatical phenomena in Latin in the selected works.

3.4.1. Passive Verb Forms

Pharmaceutical terminology of plant oils, following the traditions of classical Latin grammar, prefers to use passive verb form in prescriptions, e.g., paratur = is prepared; destillentur = let them be distilled.

Ph. Austriaca I: paratur/parantur…, cohobetur, destillentur, efformentur, immittantur, inficiantur, macerentur, servetur, reaffundatur, coquantur, auferatur, largiantur, exprimantur

Ph. Austriaca V: adfertur, adhibeatur, destilletur, eliciatur, servetur, solvatur, affundatur, purgetur, paretur, rectificetur, reddatur

Ph. Belg.: solvantur, concedetur, inficiantur, praecipiatur, eligetur, colligantur, deprehentuntur, imponatur, detur, evitetur, absolvatur, patitur, exponitur, continuetur, affundatur, nudari, experiri, trajiciatur, separari, committatur, intelligitur, teratur, obtineatur, paretur/paratur/parantur, torreantur, comminuantur

Ph. Hisp.: exprimitur, torculari, extrahuntur, parantur, usurpatur, insolentur, digerantur, coquantur, macerentur, extrahitur, distillatur, distillentur, formentur, servetur, injiciantur, dissolvatur, praescribitur, paratur/parantur

Ph. Hg. I: solvitur, destruitur, exoritur, evolvuntur, exprimetur, praecipitetur, adfertur, adhibeatur, rejiciatur

3.4.2. Imperatives

The imperativus denotes the imperative mood, instructing pharmacists. The so-called first imperative exists in the second person singular and plural forms, which usually coincide with the imperfect stem of the verb, e.g., recipe = take!, misce = mix!, da = give!, and date = give! in plural.

Ph. Austriaca I: Recipe!

Ph. Austriaca V: Recipe!, coque, macera, solve, mitte, serva, exprime

Ph. Belg.: recipe, exprime, sepone, effunde, coque, committe, misce, serva, separa, destilla, immitte, applica, claude, collige, ablue, cave, appone

Ph. Hisp.: recipe, tere, trajice, subjice, immitte, mitte, excipe, comprime, repone, filtra, serva, exprime, coque, adde, defaeca, misce, permisce, dissolve, digere, infunde, depura, dissolve, separa, repete, sume, procede, distilla

Ph. Hg. I: Recipe!, cave, coque, exprime, filtra, solve, serva, continue, effunde, serva

3.4.3. Prepositions

The Latin language uses prepositions (praepositiones) to express adverbial relations, which precede the construction and take either the accusative or the ablative case, e.g., ad usum = for use, and in aqua = in water.

Ph. Austriaca I: ex, ab, cum, in, per, sub

Ph. Austriaca V: ab, ad, cum, ex, in, per, sine

Ph. Belg.: sub, cum, ex, in, pro, de, super, ante, ab

Ph. Hisp.: ab, ad, cum, ex, in, per, sine

Ph. Hg. I: e/ex, cum, in, sub, ad, sine, ab

3.4.4. Ablative Absolute Constructions

This participial construction shortens the sentences and stands in the ablative case, which may include the imperfect participle (participium imperfectum) or the perfect participle (participium perfectum), e.g., aqua obtenta = after the water has been obtained; dempto oleo supernatante = after removing the supernatant oil.

Ph. Austriaca I: aqua obtenta, apposito excipulo florentino

Ph. Austriaca V: aqua obtenta, apposito excipulo florentino, dempto oleo supernatante, aqua addita, adjuncto excipulo, oleo saturata

Ph. Belg.: apposito excipulo, foramine relicto, stanno confecto, oleo separato, firmatis juncturis, puro confecto stanno

Ph. Hisp.: liquefacta Cera

Ph. Hg. I: perexiguo derelicto, acido nitrico durante calefactione

3.4.5. Passive Participle

The participium instans passivum is a participle ending in -endus, -enda, -endum, which appears in prescriptions and corresponds to a noun ending in -ing in English, expressing an action, e.g., miscendo = blended.

Ph. Austriaca I: addendo, miscendo

Ph. Austriaca V: augendo

Ph. Belg.: aperiendo, augendum, fimandis, collocandis, commendanda, replendis

Ph. Hisp.: movendo, augendo

Ph. Hg. I: conquassando

3.4.6. Participles

The participial verbs have a continuous, perfect, and infinitive form. Combined with a noun and grammatically agree, they form the participium coniunctum structure. Participle, e.g., flavescens = yellowish; participium coniunctum, e.g., aquae ebullentis = of hot/boiling water; oleum separatum = separated oil; olea separanda = oils to be separated.

Ph. Austriaca I: participium coniunctum: oleum superatum, oleum…haerens

Ph. Austriaca V: participium imperfectum: flavescens, sufficiens, participium coniunctum: oleum superatum, oleum obtentum, …contusas, …inclusas

Ph. Belg.: participium coniunctum: olea separanda, aquae ebullentis, aquae additae, aquae adhibitae, petalis recentibus? acidi succini collecti

Ph. Hisp.: participium coniunctum: voleum separatum, sufficientem portionem

Ph. Hg. I: participium coniunctum: oleum superatum, oleum solvendum, oleum obtentum

3.4.7. Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Comparative and superlative adjectives are used in three degrees in the studied works:

(a) Positive degree as a base form of an adjective (gradus positivus);

(b) Comparative degree (gradus comparativus) formed with -ior (masculine/feminine) and -ius (neuter);

(c) Superlative degree (gradus superlativus) formed with -issimus, -a, -um/or -rimus, -a, -um or -limus, -a, -um; e.g.,: largior = broader; purissimum = very pure/the purest.

Ph. Austriaca I: -

Ph. Austriaca V: spissius, tenuissimum, notissimum, purissimum, fragrantissimi, foetidissimi, gravissimi

Ph. Belg.: crassiores, usitissimi, lenissimo, minoribus, exteriore, largior, sicciores, durioris, partier

Ph. Hisp.: angustioris, fortissimi, limpidissimum, tenuissima, tenuissimum

Ph. Hg. I: purissimum, notissimum, spissius, fragrantissimi

3.4.8. Adverbs with Special Endings

Adverbs are also found in three degrees including special endings, which answer the question “how?”.

(a) positive degree: -e or -ter,

(b) comparative degree: -ius, and

(c) superlative degree: -issime, -rime or -lime.

For example: facile = easily; leniter = gently, carefully; fortissime = very strongly.

Ph. Austriaca I: -

Ph. Austriaca V: leniter, gratissime, fortissime

Ph. Belg.: prudenter, facilius, volatilius, accurate, probe, difficilius, citius, minus, potius, amplius, intime, valde

Ph. Hisp.: amplius, diutissime, fortiter, leviter

Ph. Hg. I: leniter, difficulter, facile, fortissime, perfecte, cito, tranquille, vehementer, saepius, limpide, levius, gravius, intime, minus

3.4.9. Genitive of Quality (Genitivus Qualitatis)

This syntactic case phenomenon is used in sentences. The genitive of an attributive noun expresses the characteristic of persons or things. In Hungarian, it is translated as a compound adjective with the suffix -ú or -ű; e.g., odoris fragrantissimi = of a powerful scent/the strongest fragrance.

Ph. Austriaca I: -

Ph. Austriaca V: odoris et saporis aromatici proprii, odoris fragrantissimi

Ph. Belg.: -

Ph. Hisp.: pylo-oleosae

Ph. Hg. I: caloris subflavi, odoris fragrantissimi, saporis mitis, spiritus vini 90%

3.4.10. Compound Words

They are typically formed by a noun + adjective, but in prescriptions, adjective + adjective compounds are more common; e.g., caeruleo-viridis = bluish-greenish.

Ph. Austriaca I: pylo-oleosae

Ph. Austriaca V: flavo-viride, caeruleo-viridis, empyreumatico-acris, amaro-aromatici, fusco-niger

Ph. Belg.: -

Ph. Hisp.: -

Ph. Hg. I: purpureorubrum, rutilo-fuscum, flavo-brunei

3.4.11. Diminutive Forms

Diminutive suffixes belong to the category of word formation. One of the most common noun-forming suffixes in technical (pharmaceutical) language is -culus, -cula, and -culum; e.g., spissiusculum = a little thicker (literally: thicker).

Ph. Austriaca I: -

Ph. Austriaca V: spissiusculum

Ph. Belg.: -

Ph. Hisp.: -

Ph. Hg. I: spissiusculum

3.5. Monographs of Lavender Oil in the Studied Pharmacopoeias—Case Study

As a case study, description and details of Latin terminology and a section of lavender oil are selected and demonstrated in five pharmacopoeias, included as a single paragraph or in the section of oils of other origin (Figure 3).

3.5.1. Lavender Oil in Ph. Austriaca I, p. 79

Under distilled oils in this volume, referring to the same distillation method of lavender oil, the recipe for anise oil reads: “Take anise seeds and water (...pound), soak and distil for 12 h in continuously bubbling water, in a bag, in a lead container, until colourless water comes through. Then add a similar amount of seeds and a sufficient amount of boiling water, and distil until the desired amount of oil is separated from the water”.

3.5.2. Lavender Oil in Ph. Belgica, p. 182

In the “Pingue volatile vegetabile” category, 12 rules (Regulae) for the preparation of essential/distilled oils are described in detailed Latin sentences. Point 12 states that, according to these rules, lavender oil should be produced from lavender spike (=spica; this term does not appear in the other studied pharmacopoeias).

3.5.3. Lavender Oil in Ph. Hispanica, p. 153

Chapter XXIII mentions lavender, including data on the preparation method of the flower and the required amount of water, which are detailed in the section on absinthe oil as a general description and extraction of oils. Latin text describes the distillation process, repeating the multiple distillations until a sufficient quantity of oil is obtained.

3.5.4. Lavender Oil in Ph. Austriaca V, p. 141

In this volume, section number 534 describes lavender oil as follows: “A common, commercially available oil made from fresh lavender flowers (flowering plants). It should be light yellow, clear (transparent), delicate, with a distinctive aroma and taste, and strong”.

3.5.5. Lavender Oil in Ph. Hg. I, p. 318

Section 309 states the following about lavender oil: “Clear, yellowish or greenish-yellow, thin, acidic, soluble in 90% alcohol in any proportion. It explodes when heated with iodine and a lot of steam, and decomposes when boiled with acidum nitricum (“nitric acid”)”.

4. Discussion

The sections and the Latin-language instructions on preparation of herbal oils showed various terminological and grammatical aspects in the selected pharmacopoeias, in which the monolingual Latin editions became bilingual works in the second part of the 19th century, including Latin and national languages.

In the 19th century, pharmacopoeias, like the selected Pharmacopoea Austriaca, Pharmacopoea Hungarica, Pharmacopoea Belgica, and Pharmacopoea Hispanica still contained a significant proportion of plant-based substances, including oils and essential oils. These were mainly used as carriers (e.g., olive oil in ointments), active ingredients (e.g., castor oil as a laxative drug), and aromatic components (e.g., lavender and eucalyptus oil). In the 19th century, approximately 30–40% of medicines were plant-based, with oils and essential oils accounting for 5–10% of this total [32,33]. The role of essential and vegetable oils later significantly decreased to 1–2%. However, they continue to play a prominent role in the field of alternative and complementary medicine, e.g., in aromatherapy and phytotherapy. Essential oils are often used in medicinal preparations, cosmetics, and dietary supplements. During the late 19th century, various European pharmacopoeias began to formally recognise the therapeutic potential of essential oils, classifying them based on their antimicrobial properties, specific constituents, and applications in various medical contexts [34]. For instance, specific essential oils, such as those derived from Thymus vulgaris (thyme) or Origanum vulgare (oregano), were acknowledged for their rich profiles of bioactive compounds, including phenols and terpenes, which contributed to their efficacy in treating a range of ailments [34,35]. By the middle of the 19th century, various effective chemically prepared compounds had also appeared on the market.

Austrian pharmacopoeias are increasingly sought to simplify the range of medicines and achieve greater transparency by eliminating preparations that were only common in certain regions. This process may have been influenced by the distribution and availability of plants used as the basis for preparations (Table 1). Pharmacopoeias published after the studied period, valid in smaller territorial units, partially restored these regional characteristics. This phenomenon accounts for a drastic change in the quantity of cold-pressed oils in Ph. Austriaca V. All five books contain numerous tables, such as weights and measures of the mentioned oils.

Altogether, 12 oils originated from caraway seed, sweet cumin, pine seed/juniper, lavender, flax, mint, olive, anise, almond, castor, rosemary, and cocoa are mentioned in all studied works; however, they are mentioned under various names and categories.

The number of pressed and cooked oils listed in the studied Belgian and Spanish pharmacopoeias increases. The Spanish volume includes oils from flowers such as chamomile, rose, iris, and lily species.

Among the described oils in the studied works, differences were found due to geographical and climatic reasons, the number of source plants and preparations, and the various social acceptance of the use and consumption of oil-based products. The plants used in oil preparations in the Belgian pharmacopoeia are similar to the raw materials used in various Central European preparations. It is also worth noting the opportunities offered by the colonial empire associated with the Belgian territories (Table 2). In the case of Spanish preparations, the source plants primarily originate from the Mediterranean, and there is also the possibility of a significant influence from plant drugs from colonial territories (Table 3).

The structure of the prescriptions also reveals clearly noticeable differences in the studied works, e.g., in the terminology used for the oils. For example, anise oil is listed in Ph. Austriaca I–IV as Oleum destillatum Anisi, where the plant name is in the genitive case, preceded by the method of production in Latin. Meanwhile, it is presented as Oleum Anisi in Ph. Hg. I, including the plant name in the genitive after the name of the oil; however, the description states that it is “destillatione,” meaning distilled oil. Ph. Belg. also writes it as Oleum Anisi and classifies it among Olea destillata. Ph. Hispanica is completely different, presenting the name of the analogue preparation as Oleum seminis Anisi, which also indicates the plant organ used (seed). However, this pharmacopoeia does not describe the preparation method of the oils.

The terms pressed and pressed out (oleum pressum and ol. expressum), boiled and boiled out (oleum coctum and ol. excoctum), distilled and/or volatile (oleum destillatum and/or oleum aethereum) occur in parallel in the case of herbal oils of the studied volumes. In the first Austrian pharmacopoeia, crushed and boiled are also mentioned.

Some oils are listed under multiple names. Among them, Oleum corticum venale in Ph. Austriaca I–II, Oleum de Bergamo in Ph. Austriaca I–III, Oleum corticum aurantium venale in Ph. Austriaca III, Oleum corticum Aurantiorum and Oleum Aurantii florum in Ph. Austriaca V. Oleum destillatum corticum Citri in Ph. Austriaca I–IV as Oleum Citri in Ph. Austriaca V, as well as, e.g., Oleum Olivarum in Ph. Austriaca I–III as Oleum pressum ex frutibus Oleae Europaeae in Ph. Austriaca IV. Oleum cacao is mentioned under the same name as Butyrum cacao in each selected work.

With the transition to national languages, the terminological “confusion” disappears, and the scope of Latin terminology and grammatical phenomena becomes significantly narrower: limited primarily to the designation of oil, the plant species, and the plant family. Detailed qualitative and chemical description are provided. Emphasis shifts toward qualitative and quantitative analysis, as well as rapid indicative testing (including solubility, chemical composition, drying characteristics, and preservation/storage properties).

Earlier, the structural differences in the various pharmacopoeias were mentioned; their structure can be described as follows:

Sections of Ph. Austriaca I–V: Praefatio, Prooemium, Pondera pharmaceutica: drachma, libra, granum, scrupulus, uncia; Regulae et notationes generales, Tabulae, Pondera medicinalia austriaca (Tabulae: 13 table, Elenchus_Medicamentorum simplicium eorumque praeparatorum et compositorum, Pharmaca simplicia Ph. Austriaca IV + Appendix (Aurum-Toxicodendron), Formulae Praeparatorum et compositorum Ph. Austriaca IV + Appendix, Tabula I–IV, Index, and Addenda et corrigenda (Ph. Austriaca III).

Ph. Hg. I: The simplest structure, similar to and based on the 5th Austrian Pharmacopoeia, includes Praefatio, Regulae et notae generales, Index A–Z, I. Apparatus reagentium, II. Reagentia semel normalia, Ill. Reagentia non normalia, and Tabulae I–XX.

Ph. Belgica lists and classifies preparations in a complex and extensive structure, namely Sciptores (Ad lectorem), Index, Corrigenda, Prooemium, and Sectio I–III, including the description of the preparations. Various rules are outlined here for each preparation, expressed in multiple points and lengthy Latin sentences. The last part of the volume contains the tabulae, and a description of the work is included in German (left) and French (right) columns.

In Ph. Hispanica, the Praefatio also discusses the 1817 edition, while the next section focuses on the latest volume, which addresses the authors and editors in Spanish. The preparations are described in 44 chapters, followed by Index capitatum, Index Medicamentorum, and Index Antiquorum. After the Belgian volume, this Spanish edition is the longest and the most complex work among the selected pharmacopoeias. In comparison to the Belgian and Spanish volumes, similar grammatical phenomena were found in the prescriptions of the oils. More complicated and longer sentences are found in the Spanish edition, where classical Latin vocabulary and sentence structures are observed, in addition to technical terminology.

The Latin language is still a living technical language in pharmacy. The Rp. (recipe = take) formula has remained in use, particularly in prescribing and prescribing manufactured and compounded preparations. Regarding grammar, the ingredients are still listed in the genitive case, and the quantities are in the accusative case. The instructive verbs for pharmacists are in the imperative form, mainly related to the preparation methods. Actually, passive verbs, abbreviations of terms, and prepositional structures also occur, especially in the prescription of compounded preparations. The names of dosage forms and active ingredients are in Latin, for example, unguentum, tinctura, and Hydrargyrum. Teaching Latin is a compulsory subject in pharmacy training, as it is essential for understanding the terminology related to dosage forms, routes of administration, and prescription of medicinal products. A part of the plants and plant-derived drugs and preparations are no longer in use. Oleum venale (commercial oil) also no longer applied, either. The boiled (coctum, excoctum) oils have become obsolete preparations. In a sense, similar preparations may still exist, but they are in no way like those that were available in old pharmacies. In some cases it became apparent that some oil preparations are toxic (e.g., Oleum sabinae, Oleum hyosciami foliorum coctum, Oleum herbae tanaceti, Oleum crotonis tigli), the indication has changed (Oleum pressum semini lini, Oleum florum lavandulae, or became obsolete (e.g., Oleum camphoratum, Oleum cajeputi depuratum, Oleum carvi), while some premedies still exist in a similar form with novel indications in the current pharmacy.

In the selected pharmacopoeias, the structure of prescriptions is quite heterogeneous, although terminological overlaps can also occur. The Ph. Austriaca I–IV specifies certain quantities and methods, but a single method is often applied to multiple preparations. This is also typical of Ph. Hisp., which gives specific units and comprehensive prescriptions. The used units can also vary (e.g., libra, uncia, drachma), depending on local traditions and the implementation of the modern international decimal system of weights and measures, as seen in pharmacopoeias published in the 19th century. Ph. Austriaca V provides quantities only in certain cases, and in other cases, it refers to the drug, the method and the characteristics of the oils, including consistency, colour, and smell. In Ph. Hg. I there are no instructions for preparation, only information on consistency, colour, smell, and a brief description of the plant organs used for the production of fatty oils. In the systematisations, there can be alterations to a higher degree. Later editions were more focused on a specific function in early quality management.

The antibacterial and other effects of certain essential oil derivatives were already recognised in the 19th century. Still, their importance declined significantly due to the difficulty of standardisation and the discovery of new, effective drug molecules. Today, the increasing prevalence of antibiotic resistance and, in other cases, unpredictable drug interactions have brought essential oils with appropriate active ingredients back into the spotlight. Recently, the essential oils of plants have been the subjects of extensive research investigations again.

5. Conclusions

This unique comprehensive study of Latin nomenclature and grammatical aspects of essential and fatty oils can play a significant role in further analyses of the selected and other pharmacopoeias. The comparative study highlights the significance of Latin terms in the mentioned oils of plants, focusing on the differences and similarities described in the scientific terminology. It can provide a wide overview of the development and change in presence, uses, and preparations of herbal oils in the temporary pharmacy and phytotherapy.