Impact Analysis of High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse Coupling Effects on Power Grid Protection Relays
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- The component of primary interest for this work was the early-time (E1) element. A high-altitude electromagnetic pulse event is capable of inflicting catastrophic damage on electrical infrastructure across an expansive area [9]. In scenarios involving high-altitude nuclear explosions, terrestrial electrical power systems are particularly susceptible to HEMP effects. The most notable direct encounter with an E1 HEMP occurred during a high-altitude nuclear test by the USA in 1962, which was conducted 400 km above the mid-Pacific Ocean. The repercussions of this test were felt over 1445 km away in Hawaii, with more than 300 reports of equipment damage, affecting streetlights, burglar alarms, and a microwave link [10]. This incident underscored the substantial threat posed by EMPs to power system infrastructure.
- The E2 phase of a HEMP exhibits many similarities to lightning, particularly regarding its timing [11]. E2 couples to electrical equipment via airborne mechanisms, more akin to the E1 pulse than to lightning. Nonetheless, the effects of an E2 HEMP closely resemble those of lightning strikes [12]. Despite this, E2 is generally not viewed as a significant threat, primarily due to its relatively low amplitude of approximately 0.1 kV/m. Various devices, such as lightning surge arresters, are effective in protecting against both lightning and E2 pulses. However, the predominant concern is that an E2 pulse often follows the more destructive E1 pulse. If lightning surge arresters or other protective measures are compromised by an E1 pulse, the subsequent E2 can cause significant damage to components.
- Similarly, the E3 HEMP phase and geomagnetic disturbances share characteristics that render them comparable in terms of their impacts and the damages they cause [13,14]. These disturbances couple efficiently with long transmission lines, potentially generating ground-induced currents in the range of hundreds to thousands of amperes. For instance, in 1989, a geomagnetic storm damaged a Hydro Quebec transformer and capacitor, leading to a shutdown of 21 gigawatts of power supply within one minute [15]. This event plunged the entire province of Quebec, Canada, into darkness for over nine hours. E3-induced currents are low frequency, and thus, may saturate magnetic equipment, such as transformers.
2. Equipment Illustration
2.1. Protection Relays
- Current transformer (CT) and voltage transformer (VT): these components reduce the current or voltage of a device to a measurable level.
- Protection relay: receives measurement signals from the secondary sides of CTs and VTs to determine whether the protected line or equipment is under stress.
- Circuit breaker: operates based on the commands from the protection relay, opening when a fault is detected and closing after the fault is cleared.
- Communication module: facilitates the transmission of information and measurements from one relay to another receiving relay or substation.
2.1.1. Description of Protection Relays
2.1.2. Determination of Measurement Ports
2.2. Impedance Measurement Instruments
3. Impedance Measurement and De-Embedding Process
3.1. Calibration, Configuration, and Measurement
3.2. De-Embedding Process for the Sensor
3.3. Measurement Results and Modeling of Equipment
4. Simulation Methodology
4.1. Pulse Current Injection Method
4.2. FEKO Plane Wave Simulation
5. Study Results
5.1. Impedance Results
5.2. PCI Method Results
5.3. FEKO Simulation Results
5.4. Evaluation
6. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
References
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LCR Meter | Imp. Analyzer | VNA | |
---|---|---|---|
Name | MCR-5200 | HP 4395A | Planar TR1300/1 |
Adapter | - | HP 87512A | N1.1 Calibration Kit |
Freq. range | 40 Hz–200 kHz | 10 Hz–500 MHz | 300 kHz–1.3 GHz |
Imp. range | 0.1 mΩ–99.99 MΩ | <40 kΩ | - |
Accuracy | >0.1% | 3–10% | 0.5–3% |
Rise Time | Oscillation Frequency | Decaying | |
---|---|---|---|
Open-circuit voltage | 5 ns ± 30% | (3, 10, 30) MHz ± 10% | ; |
Short-circuit current | 3 MHz: <330 ns; 10 MHz: <100 ns; 30 MHz: <33 ns | MHz ± 30% | ; |
Load Resistance | Rise Time | Pulse Width | Peak Voltage |
---|---|---|---|
50 Ω | ns | ns | 4 kV ± 10% |
1000 Ω | ns | 50 ns (−15 ns to +100 ns) | 7.6 kV ± 20% |
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Thotakura, N.L.; Wu, Y.; Mignardot, D.; Zhang, L.; Qiu, W.; Markel, L.C.; Liao, D.; McConnell, B.W.; Liu, Y. Impact Analysis of High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse Coupling Effects on Power Grid Protection Relays. Electronics 2024, 13, 1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13071336
Thotakura NL, Wu Y, Mignardot D, Zhang L, Qiu W, Markel LC, Liao D, McConnell BW, Liu Y. Impact Analysis of High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse Coupling Effects on Power Grid Protection Relays. Electronics. 2024; 13(7):1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13071336
Chicago/Turabian StyleThotakura, Naga Lakshmi, Yuru Wu, David Mignardot, Liang Zhang, Wei Qiu, Lawrence C. Markel, Dahan Liao, Benjamin W. McConnell, and Yilu Liu. 2024. "Impact Analysis of High-Altitude Electromagnetic Pulse Coupling Effects on Power Grid Protection Relays" Electronics 13, no. 7: 1336. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics13071336