Assessment of Environmental Dynamics and Ecosystem Services of Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl in San Jorge River Basin, Colombia

Abstract

Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl is a Neotropical bamboo native to southern Mexico through Central America to Colombia, where it thrives in riparian zones of the San Jorge River basin. Despite its ecological and socio-economic importance, its environmental dynamics and provision of ecosystem services remain poorly understood. This study (1) quantifies spatial and temporal land use/cover changes in the municipality of Montelíbano between 2002 and 2022 and (2) evaluates the ecosystem services that local communities derive from in 2002, 2012, and 2022, and they were classified in QGIS using G. amplexifolia. We applied a supervised classification of Landsat imagery (2002, 2012, 2022) in QGIS, achieving 85% overall accuracy and a Cohen’s Kappa of 0.82 (n = 45 reference points). For the social assessment, we held participatory workshops and conducted semi-structured interviews with artisans, fishers, authorities, and NGO representatives; responses were manually coded to extract key themes. The results show a 12% decline in total vegetated area from 2002 to 2012, followed by an 8% recovery by 2022, with bamboo-dominated stands following a similar pattern. Communities identified raw material provision (87% of mentions), climate regulation (82%), and cultural–recreational benefits (58%) as the most important services provided by G. amplexifolia. This is the first integrated assessment of G. amplexifolia’s landscape dynamics and community-valued services in the San Jorge basin, highlighting its dual function as a renewable resource and a natural safeguard against environmental risks. Our findings offer targeted recommendations for management practices and land use policies to support the species’ conservation and sustainable utilization.

1. Introduction

Bamboo is increasingly recognized as an economical, eco-friendly, and renewable alternative to traditional wood and lignocellulosic materials in its native regions of Asia, the Americas, and Africa [1,2,3,4,5,6]. In addition to its versatile material applications, bamboo offers essential environmental, social, and economic benefits, including carbon sequestration, soil erosion control, and support for rural communities’ livelihoods [4,5,6,7]. These advantages stem from species-specific traits, such as rapid growth, high biomass yield, and a distinctive tissue structure, which collectively enhance bamboo’s suitability for various uses.

In Latin America, particularly in Colombia, Ecuador, and Brazil, various species of bamboo make significant contributions to local economies through handicrafts, construction materials, and engineered products, such as laminated panels and flooring [8]. Guadua angustifolia Kunth has garnered considerable attention in both research and commercial applications, valued for its exceptional structural strength and widespread cultivation [9,10,11]. In contrast, Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl, identified by the International Network for Bamboo and Rattan (INBAR) as a priority species [9], remains underexplored despite its broad distribution, which extends from southern Mexico through Central America to Colombia, and its ecological importance in riparian corridors and seasonally flooded plains [12,13]. However, existing studies on the properties of G. amplexifolia in the San Jorge River basin [14,15] lack comprehensive and integrated assessments of its environmental dynamics and ecosystem service provision.

Despite the increasing recognition of bamboo’s multifunctional potential, no prior study has combined multi-decadal land use/cover change analysis with participatory ecosystem service valuation for Guadua amplexifolia in Latin America. While G. angustifolia is well characterized, the spatial dynamics, local perceptions, and governance levers guiding G. amplexifolia management remain undocumented in the San Jorge basin. By integrating the supervised classification of Landsat-derived land use/cover histories with community workshops and stakeholder mapping, our work closes this critical gap and provides actionable insights for sustainable restoration in a post-conflict setting.

The San Jorge River basin, situated in the department of Córdoba, Colombia, is an ecologically significant region characterized by its humid tropical forests, high biodiversity, and extensive socio-environmental conflicts. The area faces rapid land use changes due to deforestation, mining expansion, agricultural intensification, and urban development. These pressures are altering the natural landscape, threatening native vegetation, and impacting the livelihoods of communities that depend on natural resources. In this context, G. amplexifolia may play a crucial role in stabilizing riverbanks, mitigating floods, and providing raw materials for traditional and emerging uses. Yet, the spatial–temporal patterns of bamboo cover change in Montelíbano, a municipality within the basin, and how these dynamics relate to the local perceptions of ecosystem services have not been quantified.

This study leverages GIS as an analytical framework, enabling the mapping and quantification of land use/cover change using Landsat imagery from 2002, 2012, and 2022 through supervised classification. This approach allows for the identification of spatial patterns, the measurement of rates of vegetation loss and recovery, and the detection of landscape-scale drivers, such as urban expansion and agricultural intensification. Integrating this spatial analysis with participatory workshops and semi-structured interviews enriches our understanding of provisioning, regulations, and cultural services valued by community members, artisans, fishers, authorities, and NGO representatives.

This dual-method approach addresses this study’s objectives, including the following: first, to quantify spatial and temporal changes in land use/cover in the municipality of Montelíbano between 2002 and 2022 and second, to evaluate the ecosystem services associated with G. amplexifolia as perceived by diverse social actors. The findings are not only designed to inform, but they also serve as a springboard for environmental policies, crafting management strategies, and guiding community-led development initiatives that promote the sustainable use of this native bamboo in the San Jorge River basin by weaving together biophysical patterns and local cultural values.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area

The department of Córdoba, located in Colombia’s Caribbean Region, spans approximately 25,020 km² between 09°26’16” and 07°22’05” N and 74°47’43” and 76°30’01” W. It borders the Caribbean Sea and the Department of Sucre to the north; Sucre, Bolívar, and Antioquia to the east; Antioquia to the south; and both Antioquia and the Caribbean Sea to the west. Administratively, Córdoba comprises 30 municipalities and 260 corregimientos across six environmental subregions, Alto Sinú, Medio Sinú, Bajo Sinú, Sabana, Costera, and San Jorge, each defined by distinct watershed influences. The San Jorge subregion includes the municipalities of Buenavista, Ayapel, Puerto Libertador, San José de Uré, La Apartada, Pueblo Nuevo, Montelíbano, and Planeta Rica [11].

Montelíbano lies in the southern portion of Córdoba at 55 m above sea level (Figure 1) and covers roughly 128,200 hectares, about 19.5% of the San Jorge subregion, making it the third largest municipality after Ayapel and Puerto Libertador [16,17]. The population of Montelíbano totals approximately 86,647 inhabitants, with 73.7% residing in the urban center and 26.3% in ten corregimientos (El Anclar, El Palmar, Los Córdobas, Pica Pica Nuevo, Puerto Anchica, Puerto Nuevo, San Francisco del Rayo, Boca de Uré, Uré, and Tierradentro). Indigenous Embera-Katió community members number 7316 (8.44%), while Afro-Colombian groups account for 880 (1.02%) of the population [16].

The San Jorge subregion covers 60.63% of Córdoba’s land area. It features a tropical humid forest biome (bh-T) with annual rainfall between 2000 and 4000 mm, mean temperatures around 24 °C, and undulating terrain up to 1000 m elevation [18]. The San Jorge River is the primary water source but poses a flood risk to 22.2% of the municipal area, with a 90.9% recurrence rate. Riverbank erosion, landslides, and subsidence are common hazards [11,16,19]. Montelíbano’s natural ecosystems span 28,171.8 hectares (4.34% of Córdoba), including 9219.7 hectares of wetlands (5.93% of its natural cover). The local economy is driven by extractive industries, with mining and quarrying accounting for 61.71% of economic activity. Agriculture, livestock, hunting, forestry, and fishing contribute 5.23%; tourism and small-scale manufacturing 9.43%; social services 7.98%; and commerce and hospitality 7.14% [16].

2.2. Remote Sensing Data Acquisition and Processing

Data was collected using land use/cover satellite imagery and vector datasets, which formed the basis of our analysis. Landsat surface reflectance images for 2002 and 2012 (Landsat 5 TM) and 2022 (Landsat 8 OLI/TIRS) were obtained from the USGS—United States Geological Survey (https://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/, accessed on 13 March 2024). The imagery has a spatial resolution of 30 m for multispectral bands and 15 m for the panchromatic band, according to the ETM+ sensor, which is considered a moderate-resolution sensor suitable for regional-scale land use change studies. All scenes were visually screened, and those with more than 10% cloud cover were excluded or masked. Atmospheric correction was applied using the Semi-Automatic Classification Plugin (SCP) in QGIS 3.28.

Vector datasets—administrative boundaries, hydrological networks, and thematic layers—were sourced from national repositories (IGAC, IDEAM, SIAC). Daily discharge records for the San Jorge River at the IDEAM limnometric station (7°59′16.69″ N, 75°25′02.39″ W) for the years 2017, 2019, and 2021 were accessed through the DHIME portal (http://dhime.ideam.gov.co/atencionciudadano/, accessed on 22 November 2023).

All raster and vector layers were integrated in QGIS 3.28. The land use/cover classification employed a supervised approach based on the Corine Land Cover scheme adapted for Colombia [20]. We defined five primary classes: bamboo-dominated areas, other vegetated surfaces, bare soil, water bodies, and built-up areas. Training samples were digitized from basemaps and collected GPS points (n = 45). Classification accuracy was evaluated using confusion matrices to report overall accuracy, the Kappa coefficient, and class-specific producers’ and users’ accuracies. Post-classification change detection quantified transitions between 2002 and 2012 and 2012 and 2022, with the results summarized in

Table 1. Areas and proportional coverage of land use/cover classes in Montelíbano (2002–2022).

Land Use/Cover Class	2002		2012		2022
	Area (ha)	(%)	Area (ha)	(%)	Area (ha)	(%)
Bamboo-dominated areas 1	2153.03	1.68	3566.02	2.78	6869.76	5.36
Forest plantation	76.03	0.06	55.15	0.04	58.42	0.05
Gallery and riparian forest	101.53	0.08	1281.28	1	925.14	0.72
Wooded pastures	1935.47	1.51	2189.59	1.71	5846.20	4.56
Bare and degraded lands	—	—	—	—	43.35	0.03
Clean pastures	56,858.27	44.37	55,467.77	43.28	48,131.46	37.54
Continuous urban fabric	445.81	0.35	623.55	0.49	587.62	0.46
Crop mosaic	52.66	0.04	—	—	245.93	0.19
Dense forest	31,759.57	24.79	22,305.80	17.4	20,948.07	16.34
Discontinuous urban fabric	132.9	0.1	42.69	0.03	226.91	0.18
Fragmented forest	2731.37	2.13	9640.18	7.52	10,946.72	8.54
Grassland	370.99	0.29	—	—	—	—
Industrial or commercial areas	26.27	0.02	—	—	73.03	0.06
Lakes, lagoons, and swamps	—	—	—	—	25.46	0.02
Mining extraction areas	584.78	0.46	765.5	0.6	732.81	0.57
Mosaic of crops with natural spaces	430.04	0.34	913.25	0.71	2583.96	2.02
Mosaic of crops, pastures, and natural spaces	17,390.50	13.56	14,754.62	11.51	8362.38	6.52
Mosaic of pastures and crops	821.79	0.64	2466.90	1.92	3289.45	2.56
Mosaic of pastures with natural spaces	10,433.09	8.14	14,882.43	11.61	15,193.65	11.85
Permanent tree crops	—	—	—	—	2.72	0
Recreational facilities	—	—	—	—	98.63	0.08
Rivers	1081.74	0.84	100.98	0.08	1467.92	1.15
Secondary or transitional vegetation	6667.60	5.2	13,650.70	10.65	21,653.77	16.89
Shrubland	3028.89	2.36	2284.34	1.78	1945.11	1.52
Weedy pastures	19,068.66	14.88	13,536.35	10.56	11,441.53	8.92
Wetlands	144.91	0.11	21.31	0.02	46.28	0.04

¹ “Bamboo-dominated areas” = Forest plantation + Gallery and riparian forest + Wooded pastures. “–“ indicates the class was not present or mapped in that year.

.

All digitization was performed at a scale of 1:25,000, with layers reprojected to WGS 84/UTM Zone 18 N and snapping tolerances set to 5 m for topological consistency. Validation used a 60%/40% split of the 45 GPS points for training and assessment, respectively. Overall accuracies were 85%, 87%, and 89% for 2002, 2012, and 2022, with corresponding Kappa coefficients of 0.82, 0.84, and 0.86. The bamboo class achieved an average producer’s accuracy of 83% and user’s accuracy of 87%, confirming the reliable detection of G. amplexifolia stands.

2.3. Perception of Role of Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl by Stakeholders

To capture both local and institutional perspectives on G. amplexifolia, we partnered with the Montelíbano Secretariat of Planning and Secretariat of Economic Development. Four participatory workshops were held on 20 August, 17 September, 30 September, and 8 October 2024, facilitated by the Montelíbano Mayor’s Office and the Ombudsman’s Office to ensure inclusive engagement. Each session hosted between 38 and 42 participants, including representatives from Fundación Río San Jorge and Fundación Ambiental Corazón Verde (NGOs), fishing cooperatives, artisans, and informal bamboo harvesters (“palaustreros”). Workshop activities, structured around the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment’s service categories [21], combined mapping exercises, guided group discussions, and service-ranking tasks to elicit stakeholder valuations of G. amplexifolia’s provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural services.

Additionally, we conducted fourteen semi-structured interviews with community stakeholders (artisans, fishers, and harvesters) and two institutional representatives (from municipal planning and environmental authorities), selected through purposive sampling to ensure a diversity of viewpoints. The interviews followed a protocol adapted from [22] (see Table S1), which explored the historical uses of G. amplexifolia, observed ecological trends, and management preferences. All sessions were audio-recorded, transcribed verbatim, and manually coded to identify ecosystem service categories, valuation patterns, and emergent themes.

2.4. Analysis of Collected Information

We employed a multi-criteria decision analysis (MCDA) framework to synthesize and prioritize ecosystem services and management options, based on the systemic analysis methodologies proposed by Belton and Stewart (2002) and Roy (1996) [22,23]. Before the MCDA, qualitative data from workshop mapping exercises and interview transcripts were manually coded. Open coding captured service categories (provisioning, regulating, supporting, and cultural), perceived trends (increase, decrease, or stability), and management preferences (conservation, sustainable harvesting, and restoration). Coding occurred in three phases: (i) the open coding of all transcripts and workshop notes; (ii) the construction of a codebook with clear definitions and inclusion criteria; and (iii) an assessment of intercoder reliability, with discrepancies resolved through consensus.

For MCDA, evaluation criteria included the frequency of service mentions, perceived importance (ranked 1–5 during workshops), and biophysical feasibility (informed by land use/cover change rates). Weights for each criterion were determined using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP), first formalized by Saaty (1980), engaging ten key stakeholders in pairwise comparisons to reflect community priorities [24]. A weighted criteria matrix was implemented in Excel, where each service was scored and ranked to identify optimal management strategies. This integrative approach—melding manually coded socio-cultural insights with quantitative biophysical indices and stakeholder-driven weighting—yielded robust, context-specific recommendations for the sustainable management of G. amplexifolia in the San Jorge River basin.

3. Results

3.1. Dynamics of Land Use/Cover Change

To achieve our first objective of quantifying spatial and temporal changes in land use and cover in Montelíbano from 2002 to 2022, we analyzed Landsat imagery using a supervised classification workflow. Table 1 displays the quantified changes in each major land use and cover category over this period. Montelíbano’s landscape underwent significant transformations in vegetation and land use and cover between 2002 and 2022. Although urban cover remained below 1% of the municipality’s 128,200 hectares, it steadily increased from a combined 578 hectares in 2002 to over 800 hectares by 2022, reflecting the incremental expansion of the built environment.

Vegetation dynamics reveal a significant fourfold increase in bamboo-dominated areas, which grew from 2133 ha (1.66%) in 2002 to 6850 ha (5.34%) in 2022. This trend results from natural regeneration along riparian corridors and silvopastoral margins, enhanced by intentional community-led planting efforts. In contrast, clean pastures, once the primary land use/cover, decreased from 56,858 ha (44.37%) to 48,131 ha (37.54%), while dense forest cover shrank from 31,760 ha (24.79%) to 20,948 ha (16.34%), indicating clearance for agriculture and settlement.

At the same time, secondary/transitional vegetation tripled from 6668 ha (5.20%) to 21,654 ha (16.89%), signaling significant successional recovery in areas deforested before 2002. The mosaic of pastures alongside natural spaces also increased notably, from 10,433 ha (8.14%) to 15,194 ha (11.85%), indicating a shift toward heterogeneous landscapes that combine grazing with woody regeneration. Minor land use/cover classes (small-scale croplands, woodlands, wetlands) collectively accounted for 6–7% of the area across all three time points.

Between 2002 and 2022, the landscape of Montelíbano not only saw the expansion of bamboo stands but also underwent significant changes in land use/cover and risk profiles. Nearly half of the municipality, specifically 46%, is designated as forestry land, primarily for protection and production. Meanwhile, 40% of the total area is allocated for agriculture, which includes both permanent and semi-intensive crops. Riparian corridors that feature species such as G. amplexifolia, eucalyptus, and guamo intersect these zones, supporting both production and conservation objectives. Hydrologically, the San Jorge River (275.12 km long, fed by 110 tributaries) averaged flows of 304 m³/s in 2017, 231 m³/s in 2019, and 259 m³/s in 2021 (Figure S1). Peak discharges during the rainy season coincide with increased flooding and erosion risk, highlighting the significance of bamboo buffers in moderating flows and stabilizing banks.

Montelíbano faces a variety of environmental risks, with wildfire susceptibility being a primary concern. Moderate wildfire risk impacts 66% of the municipality, covering approximately 520,896 hectares, mainly within dense forests (517,765 hectares) and, to a lesser extent, in shrublands (485 hectares). High wildfire susceptibility affects 22% of the area, or about 173,739 hectares, primarily concentrated in clean pastures (159,121 hectares) and overgrown pastures (14,618 hectares). Erosion risk follows a similar pattern. About 64.5% of Montelíbano, totaling 669,217 hectares, falls into the “low susceptibility” category. Moderate-risk zones account for 19.7% (204,525 hectares), while areas with slight susceptibility represent 15.3% (158,988 hectares). Less than 1% of the territory, or 897 hectares, is classified as “severely” erosion-prone according to IDEAM criteria. This distribution of wildfire and erosion hazards highlights priority landscapes, especially those dominated by pastures and riparian zones, for targeted restoration and risk reduction interventions using Guadua amplexifolia (Figure S2).

Montelíbano’s land use framework is guided by the Development Programs with a Territorial Focus (PDET), which were established under point 1.1.10 of Colombia’s Peace Agreement. The goal of these programs is to reconcile post-conflict recovery with sustainable development. PDET zoning incorporates criteria that consider the impacts of conflict, poverty levels, the presence of illicit crops, and institutional capacity. This approach helps define areas for both conservation and productive transformation [25,26]. In Montelíbano, 47.3% of the municipality is designated for biodiversity conservation, which protects key ecosystems. Meanwhile, 23.0% of the land—approximately 36,161 hectares—is allocated for productive reconversion, with a focus on promoting sustainable agriculture and agroforestry practices. This zoning strategy supports regional efforts to balance environmental preservation with the livelihoods of local communities (Figure S3).

3.2. Perception of Role of Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl

The findings concerning the perception of Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl were derived from the methodology described in Section 2.3. This involved participatory workshops and semi-structured interviews with social actors and institutional representatives in Montelíbano. The results were manually coded based on the categories established by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [21] (see Table S2).

Local stakeholders unanimously identify the San Jorge River corridor as the primary source of food, water, and raw materials. Fish—especially bocachico (a regional specialty served with yuca), striped and painted catfish, blanquillo, doncella, barbudo, and picúa—are central to local diets. Additionally, the riverbanks support subsistence crops such as yuca, yam, and a variety of fruit trees. The river also provides drinking water and irrigation for agriculture.

Despite its importance, stakeholders report a steady decline in water quality and quantity, attributing this deterioration to ferronickel mining by CERROMATOSO, overfishing, sedimentation, and habitat loss. To address these issues, the rigorous environmental monitoring of mining operations, the enforcement of sustainable fishing regulations, and riparian restoration programs are needed.

In addition to aquatic resources, Guadua amplexifolia groves and associated forest patches offer building materials, artisanal fibers, and biomass for fuel, supporting the livelihoods of artisans, “palaustreros,” and rural household inhabitants. While current bamboo stocks are considered sufficient, unregulated harvesting and forest clearing pose a threat to the long-term availability of bamboo. Community members stress the need for reforestation initiatives, management plans, and incentives, such as certification schemes, to ensure a sustainable bamboo supply. Local species like campano are essential for crafting canoes and tools. Meanwhile, the extraction of river sand, ballast, and gravel at El Meneíto, La Clínica, and La Pesquera supports small-scale construction activities.

Local and institutional stakeholders recognize that corridors dominated by Guadua amplexifolia—often intermingled with eucalyptus and guamo riparian forests—play a vital role in environmental regulation. They stabilize riverbanks, sequester carbon, and moderate flood peaks during Montelíbano’s biannual rainy seasons, thus protecting fishing grounds and raw material sites from severe erosion and flooding. However, respondents express concern that, without coordinated reforestation and conservation efforts led by community groups, NGOs, and environmental authorities, these regulatory benefits may diminish. This could increase ecological vulnerability and public health risks from mosquito-borne diseases, as well as the encroachment of caimans in urban areas.

In addition to their regulatory functions, stakeholders emphasize that bamboo agroforestry and patches of secondary forest provide crucial supporting services, including soil formation, nutrient cycling, and primary productivity. They warn that uncontrolled sand and gravel extraction, deforestation, and inadequate habitat protection threaten these processes, jeopardizing soil fertility and the overall resilience of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. Furthermore, the cultural values associated with G. amplexifolia groves—such as scenic riverine landscapes that host festivals, spiritual ceremonies, and emerging ecotourism—are essential to local identity and environmental education. Although urban expansion and programmatic neglect have begun to erode these living heritage sites, there is strong community interest in developing eco-cultural trails, school-based environmental projects, and citizen-led conservation initiatives. These efforts aim to revitalize traditional connections and more deeply integrate bamboo landscapes into the cultural fabric of Montelíbano.

Table 2. Conditions of and trends in ecosystem services, drivers, and trade-offs in study area.

Service Category	Location or Habitat Providing the Service	Current Condition of the Ecosystem Service (++ Very Good, + Good, − Poor, −−Very Poor)	Likely Future Trends (↑Increase, →Stable, ↓ Decrease)		Change Drivers (Pressures or Drivers)	Actions Related to the Change Drivers (Commitments, Compensations, or Trade-Offs)	Guadua amplexifolia’s Role
			Supply	Demand
1. Provisioning services
Food	Riparian zones of the San Jorge River and agricultural areas in Montelíbano	−	↓	↑	Overfishing, nickel mining, untreated wastewater discharge	Riparian communities, NGOs, and territorial entities (establishment of fishing bans, ecosystem recovery programs, environmental control on the mining industry)	Riparian bamboo stands stabilize banks, support aquaculture
Raw materials	Forested areas and natural plantations with Guadua amplexifolia	+	↓	↑	Deforestation, lack of economic incentives, and unplanned use	Local producers, artisans, and environmental authorities (promotion of certifications and sustainable agroforestry)	Bamboo culms for construction, handicrafts, biomass
Freshwater	San Jorge River as the main source of water for human consumption and agricultural irrigation	−	↓	↑	Mining, deforestation, and unsustainable agricultural practices	Environmental authorities, local communities (implementation of efficient treatment systems and ecological remediation programs)	Riparian bamboo stands stabilize banks, support aquaculture
Fuel	Guadua amplexifolia and other local forest species used as biomass	+	↓	↑	Unregulated exploitation, deforestation, and lack of alternative energy sources	Local communities, environmental authorities, territorial entities (promotion of reforestation programs for energy purposes)	Bamboo culms for construction, handicrafts, biomass
2. Regulating services
Climate regulation	Vegetation cover of Guadua amplexifolia and riparian forests of the San Jorge River	+	↓	↑	Deforestation, agricultural expansion, and mining	Local communities, environmental authorities, NGOs, territorial entities (implementation of reforestation programs with Guadua amplexifolia)	Bamboo buffers moderate floods; sequester carbon
Extreme event regulation	Riparian forests of the San Jorge River and Guadua amplexifolia forest areas	−	↓	↑	Indiscriminate logging and occupation of flood-prone areas	Local communities, environmental authorities, NGOs, territorial entities (reforestation with Guadua amplexifolia and wetland protection)	Bamboo buffers moderate floods; sequester carbon
Carbon sequestration and storage	Vegetation cover of Guadua amplexifolia and riparian forests of the San Jorge River	+	↓	↑	Deforestation, agricultural expansion, and mining	Local communities, environmental authorities, NGOs, territorial entities (promotion of agroforestry systems with Guadua amplexifolia)	Bamboo buffers moderate floods; sequester carbon
3. Supporting services
Primary production	Forested areas, agroforestry plantations including Guadua amplexifolia, and riparian zones of the San Jorge River	+	↓	↑	Deforestation, agricultural expansion, and mining	Local communities, environmental authorities, NGOs, territorial entities (promotion of integrated agroforestry systems, incentives for soil conservation)	Bamboo agroforestry enhances soil formation and habitat
Soil formation
Habitat for species
4. Cultural services
Esthetic	Riparian zones of the San Jorge River and agroforestry areas	+	↓	↑	Deforestation and urban expansion	Local communities, environmental authorities, and territorial entities (natural area protection programs and promotion of ecotourism)	Bamboo groves serve as recreational and spiritual sites
Spiritual	San Jorge River and agroforestry areas with Guadua amplexifolia (symbols of spiritual and cultural connection for local communities)	+	↓	↑	Urban expansion and loss of cultural values and traditions associated with natural environment	Local communities, community and cultural leaders (integration of spiritual values into conservation programs)	Bamboo groves serve as recreational and spiritual sites
Educational	San Jorge River ecosystem and agroforestry areas with Guadua amplexifolia	+	→	↑	Lack of educational resources and disconnection between communities and their environment	Schools, NGOs, territorial authorities (organization of workshops and implementation of PRAES and/or PROCEDAS)	Bamboo groves serve as recreational and spiritual sites
Recreational	San Jorge River and its surroundings with ecotourism potential	+	→	↑	Lack of tourism promotion and environmental degradation	Tour operators, local communities, territorial entities (development of ecotourism infrastructure and conservation programs)	Bamboo groves serve as recreational and spiritual sites

provides details on the current condition, anticipated trends, key drivers of change, and community-proposed responses for each service category. For provisioning services, it is noted that bamboo stands along the San Jorge River help stabilize banks and support small-scale aquaculture, despite the threats to water quality and flow posed by mining and overfishing. In the category of raw materials and fuel, bamboo culms are highly valued for construction, handicrafts, and biomass energy. However, unregulated harvesting and inadequate management practices present risks to the long-term supply. Regarding climate and flood regulation, bamboo buffers are recognized for moderating peak flows and capturing carbon. Simultaneously, the functions of soil and habitat are enhanced by bamboo’s role in improving soil formation and structural complexity.

Table 3. Analysis of social actors associated with G. amplexifolia in study area.

Actors	Why do They Act the Way They Do?		Level of Power	Level of Influence	Relationships Between Different Actors		Guadua amplexifolia Uses
	Position	Interests/Needs	High (H), Medium (M), or Low (L)	High (H), Medium (M), or Low (L)	Possible Alliances	Possible Conflicts
1. Local Communities	Act out of necessity to ensure access to natural resources and improve their quality of life	Drinking water, productive areas/Security in resource access	M	H (in local aspects), L (in national decisions)	Environmental authorities and NGOs for participation in conservation projects	With mining companies and territorial entities due to a lack of representation in decision-making	Construction, fuelwood, handicrafts
2. Fishermen	Depend on the San Jorge River for economic and food sustenance	Availability of fishery resources/Fishing regulation and technical support	L	M (in local decisions related to fishing)	Local communities and environmental authorities	Overfishing and pollution of the San Jorge River due to mining	Bank stabilization; fish habitat enhancement
3. Farmers	Depend on the San Jorge River for irrigation and crop productivity	Access to water and fertile land/Irrigation infrastructure and training	M	M (at the local level)	Local communities and NGOs in agroforestry projects	Competition for water resources with mining companies	Fencing; soil stabilization; shade in agroforestry
4. Mining Companies	Aim to maximize mineral extraction in the area	Sustained operations with environmental regulation/Legal security and access to exploitation areas	H	H (at the political and economic level)	Territorial entities and some socio-political actors	With local communities and environmental groups due to negative impacts on natural resources	Potential restoration partners; CSR reforestation +
5. Environmental Authorities	Responsible for protecting ecosystems and ensuring compliance with environmental regulations	Preservation of natural resources/Funding and political support to implement plans and programs	M	H (in local and national environmental decisions)	Local communities and NGOs	Lack of resources compared to companies with high economic power	Regulatory enforcement; reforestation oversight
6. NGOs	Work to mitigate socio-environmental impacts	Implement conservation projects and improve social well-being/Collaboration with local actors and access to funding	M	H (in awareness processes and community projects)	Local communities, fishermen, and environmental authorities	With mining companies and government sectors with extractive interests	Conservation projects; community training

⁺ CSR reforestation refers to Corporate Social Responsibility reforestation programs. These are voluntary or regulatory commitments by companies—often resource-extracting firms like the mining companies in Montelíbano—to fund and carry out tree planting and habitat restoration projects.

summarizes the various stakeholder groups involved in managing G. amplexifolia, highlighting their distinct interests, their levels of power and influence, and the alliances and conflicts that shape decision-making. Local communities rely on bamboo for housing materials and fuel, benefiting from its rapid growth and renewability. Fishermen value bamboo corridors for the habitat they provide, while farmers integrate bamboo into their silvopastoral systems. NGOs include bamboo planting in their restoration initiatives. Mining companies and environmental authorities play crucial roles, acting either as partners in reforestation efforts or as regulators enforcing sustainable practices. By aligning each group’s interests and motivations with their capacity to drive change, Table 3 underscores where engagement and policy efforts can effectively promote sustainable bamboo use and conservation throughout the San Jorge basin.

Six distinct stakeholder groups are involved in managing Guadua amplexifolia in Montelíbano (see Table 3). Each group has unique interests, varying levels of power and influence, and potential alliances or points of contention. Mapping these stakeholders identified six categories of incentives that can promote ecosystem stewardship: (i) market-based, (ii) fiscal, (iii) regulatory, (iv) cooperative, (v) informational, and (vi) cultural and social. These incentives are linked to relevant measures, which include observations about their potential operation, implementation, and target actor groups (

Table 4. Incentive types, associated measures, and implementation considerations for G. amplexifolia management in Montelíbano.

Incentive Type	Key Measure	Implementation Notes
Market-based	Payments for environmental services for the conservation of the San Jorge River watershed	These incentives are effective in promoting the conservation of the San Jorge Riverbanks. However, their implementation requires reviewing the regulatory framework and ensuring stable funding. Agroforestry systems can be key beneficiaries in agroforestry areas with Guadua amplexifolia.
Fiscal	Tax exemptions and deductions for conservation and reforestation projects with Guadua amplexifolia	Fiscal incentives can encourage the participation of companies and landowners in sustainable projects. For example, mining companies could receive tax benefits if they contribute to environmental restoration by reforesting degraded areas using Guadua amplexifolia. To ensure the effectiveness of this measure, these incentives should be linked to ecological performance metrics or environmental management plans.
Regulatory	Strengthening environmental regulations for the protection of wetlands and the San Jorge Riverbanks	The strict monitoring and enforcement of environmental obligations by authorities can reduce the impacts of mining activities and deforestation.
Cooperative	Alliances between local communities, NGOs, territorial entities, and environmental authorities for the implementation of conservation projects	Cooperation among social actors has proven essential for achieving program objectives, such as afforestation with Guadua and wetland restoration. These initiatives build trust and empower local communities.
Informational	Educational campaigns on the value of ecosystem services and training in sustainable management	Disseminating information raises the awareness of the San Jorge River’s importance and the conservation benefits of Guadua amplexifolia. Schools and local media are involved in increasing outreach.
Cultural–social	Promotion of cultural practices associated with Guadua amplexifolia and ecotourism development	Recognizing the socio-cultural importance of ecosystems can motivate local communities to participate actively in their conservation. Ecotourism based on local resources is a potential tool for generating income and strengthening cultural identity.

).

3.3. Integrating Analysis for Guadua amplexifolia Management in the San Jorge River Basin

Combining our analysis of land use/cover changes (Section 3.1), community perceptions (Section 3.2, Table 2), and stakeholder mapping (Table 3) provides a comprehensive understanding of Guadua amplexifolia’s role in Montelíbano and identifies priority interventions (see Table S3). First, the biophysical data indicate a threefold expansion of bamboo stands from 2002 to 2022, primarily in riparian corridors and silvopastoral margins, concurrent with declines in dense forest and clean pasture (Table 1). These early-successional bamboo patches now occupy over 5% of the landscape and overlap key flood- and erosion-prone zones, confirming their potential as living buffers.

Second, community members ranked G. amplexifolia the highest among ecosystem services for its provisioning of raw materials (+0.87 weighted score, Table S2) and similarly valued its role in climate regulation (+0.82). They also reported steep declines in water quality and quantity linked to mining and overfishing, underscoring an urgent need to reinforce bamboo’s protective functions along riverbanks. Third, our actor analysis (Table 3) and incentive inventory (Table 4) reveal which groups hold the power and motivation to advance bamboo-based interventions. Local communities and fishers, who rely directly on bamboo for construction, fuel, and habitat enhancement for fish, can champion participatory restoration. Environmental authorities and NGOs, with regulatory authority and technical expertise, are well-positioned to coordinate large-scale reforestation and enforce sustainable harvesting practices. Meanwhile, fiscal and market incentives can engage mining firms and landowners by offering tax benefits or payments for ecosystem services, leading to measurable outcomes in bamboo buffering.

4. Discussion

The analysis of land use/cover dynamics in Montelíbano shows a significant transformation in the landscape over the past two decades. Although the urban footprint still constitutes less than 1% of the municipality, it has increased by approximately 40% between 2002 and 2022, encroaching upon open grasslands and dry forests. More notably, areas dominated by Guadua amplexifolia have more than tripled in size, expanding from just over 2100 hectares (1.66%) to nearly 6900 hectares (5.34%). This change reflects a broader ecological transition marked by a 12% decline in total vegetated cover, followed by an 8% recovery. These trends highlight a dual trajectory: the loss of primary forest and pastureland is accompanied by a rise in early successional vegetation and a significant gain in bamboo stands.

The recovery and spread of G. amplexifolia stand out as both a natural response to land use changes and a potential opportunity for sustainable management in riparian and agroforestry contexts. Additionally, the high susceptibility to flooding in the Alto San Jorge region presents a unique opportunity to explore the potential applications of Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl. This species could be promising for various uses, including the construction of elevated stilt housing for communities in high-risk areas, erosion control and reforestation along the banks of the San Jorge River, and the production of charcoal for soil improvement.

Community perceptions support the observed spatial trends and explain why G. amplexifolia is highly valued. Participants ranked bamboo as the top ecosystem service for its provision of construction materials and fuel, receiving a weighted score of 0.87. It was also rated second for its regulatory functions in preventing erosion and moderating flood peaks, with a weighted score of 0.82. However, participants expressed concerns about declining water quality and quantity, which they attribute to ferronickel mining, overfishing, and sedimentation. These issues threaten both aquatic livelihoods and bamboo’s role in stabilizing the San Jorge River. These insights underscore the pressing need to enhance bamboo buffers, particularly in areas identified by risk maps as being vulnerable to flooding, erosion, and fire.

Aligning these findings with our stakeholder analysis reveals that the potential applications of Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl within this study area are defined by two key elements: (i) the interrelations between the human and ecological components of the system, considering the specific time and space of this research, and (ii) the evaluation of attributes that contribute to the sustainability of the system, as proposed by [27,28]. These attributes include resource availability, adaptability and flexibility, overall homeostasis (stability, resilience, robustness), responsiveness, self-reliance, and empowerment. Despite the challenges of environmental conflicts in the study area, promoting Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl presents a valuable opportunity to explore the potential applications of this bamboo species. Its utilization could provide a viable economic alternative for social actors affected by these issues, offering solutions that integrate environmental sustainability with financial resilience.

Another critical aspect of Guadua amplexifolia is its role in cultural and traditional practices. The findings indicate that community members in Montelíbano recognize the species not only as a material resource but also as part of their cultural identity. Like other bamboo species used in indigenous and rural communities worldwide, Guadua amplexifolia has historically been incorporated into artisanal practices, housing, and even spiritual traditions. Preserving and promoting these cultural dimensions are essential for fostering community engagement in conservation efforts. Incorporating local knowledge and participatory governance approaches can enhance the effectiveness of conservation strategies while ensuring that management plans align with the needs and aspirations of the community.

Considering both the resource availability and the opportunities in the study area, Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl could play a key role in constructing affordable housing through modular structures. This would contribute to achieving Target 11.1 of Sustainable Development Goal 11: “Ensure access for all to adequate, safe, and affordable housing and basic services and upgrade slums by 2030”. Furthermore, promoting incentives for using this resource would foster sectoral growth and generate a positive economic impact on local communities.

5. Conclusions

The study emphasizes that in the post-conflict context, Guadua amplexifolia J. Presl has the potential to play a key role in rebuilding the region’s social and economic structure. Its ability to stimulate productive initiatives and generate consumer goods for local communities is encouraging, highlighting its significant importance for sustainable development. The contributions of Guadua amplexifolia in the San Jorge River basin extend beyond ecological functions and encompass socio-economic and cultural aspects. By addressing existing research and policy gaps, the full potential of this resource as a strategic asset for sustainable development can be realized. Future research should investigate the biomechanical properties of G. amplexifolia, assess the market feasibility of value-added bamboo products, and evaluate the long-term socio-ecological impacts through participatory monitoring. By bridging spatial data, socio-cultural values, and stakeholder incentives, this work provides a practical roadmap for harnessing bamboo’s dual strengths—both as a renewable resource and as a living defense against environmental risks—thereby fostering resilient landscapes and sustainable livelihoods in Montelíbano and comparable riverine systems.