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Article

Carbon Emissions Associated with Organic Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: A Brazilian Case Study

by
Monica Carvalho
1,*,
Samara Gonçalves Fernandes da Costa
2,
Raíssa Barreto Lins
2,
Milca Laís da Luz Macieira
3,
Julia Lessa Feitosa Virgolino
4,
Claudia Coutinho Nóbrega
5 and
Raphael Abrahao
1
1
Department of Renewable Energy Engineering, Universidade Federal da Paraiba, João Pessoa 58051-900, Brazil
2
Graduate Program in Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universidade Federal da Paraiba, João Pessoa 58051-900, Brazil
3
Graduate Program in Renewable Energy, Universidade Federal da Paraiba, João Pessoa 58051-900, Brazil
4
School of Biosystems and Food Engineering, University College Dublin, D04 K1V7 Dublin, Ireland
5
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universidade Federal da Paraiba, João Pessoa 58051-900, Brazil
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Resources 2025, 14(12), 178; https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14120178
Submission received: 24 September 2025 / Revised: 16 November 2025 / Accepted: 18 November 2025 / Published: 25 November 2025
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Abstract

Municipal solid waste (MSW) management in Brazil faces significant challenges related to waste segregation, collection efficiency, and environmentally adequate disposal. This study quantifies the carbon emissions associated with organic solid waste management, from 2022 to 2034, in the city of João Pessoa (Northeast Brazil). To this end, the Life Cycle Assessment methodology is applied to two scenarios: Scenario 1 (where all organic fraction is landfilled) and Scenario 2 (progressive implementation of composting for the domestic organic waste, starting in 2023, with increases each year until reaching 50% in 2034, and the remainder being landfilled). The latter is proposed based on the targets established in the Municipal Solid Waste Plan of João Pessoa. Projection for MSW considered a per capita rate of 0.86 kg/inhab.day, combined with a population growth rate of 1.92%/year. The results indicate that Scenario 1 emits 825 Mt CO2-eq while Scenario 2 emits 704 Mt CO2-eq for the study period (a reduction of 15%). A sensitivity analysis examined the effects of increasing transport distance (25–45 km) and the organic fraction of MSW (35–45%) on GHG emissions. Although total emissions rose under both conditions, the comparative environmental advantage of composting over landfilling remained stable. These results confirm the robustness of the analysis and reinforce composting as a low-carbon, effective strategy for managing urban waste.

1. Introduction

The management of solid waste is considered one of the most significant challenges nowadays. Developed countries are seeking more integrated and sustainable management systems for municipal solid waste (MSW), which encourages a circular economy and waste reduction [1]. However, developing countries continue to struggle with waste management, with serious issues arising from the negative impacts of improper disposal. In most Brazilian cities, MSW is not segregated, and millions of tonnes of waste are buried, burned, or left in open dumpsites. This occurs due to poor management practices and a lack of knowledge [2].
In Brazil, MSW generation reached 80.96 Mt in 2023, with 93.36% collected and 64.51% disposed of in environmentally adequate facilities [3]. Although collection rates have improved slightly over the years, along with sanitary landfill disposal, this represents only modest progress in waste management performance. The disposal of MSW in landfills continues to raise serious socio-environmental dilemmas: leachate can include high pollutant loads even after treatment [4]. Adjacent soil pollution—including heavy metals, PAHs, and microplastics—has been documented near landfill sites globally [5]. Air emissions, such as methane, ammonia, and odor-causing compounds, contribute to respiratory and eye irritation among nearby populations. Emissions from landfills can often be underreported, with satellite data showing values up to six times higher than official estimates [6]. Collectively, these issues highlight the environmental, health, and resource-conservation challenges posed by landfill-based MSW disposal.
At COP29 in Baku, Brazil has recently demonstrated a renewed commitment to reduce emissions by 59–67% by 2035 compared to 2005, aligning with a more ambitious low-carbon trajectory [7]. According to Brazil’s most recent National GHG Inventory [8], the waste sector accounted for approximately 4.5% of national emissions, with landfilling and disposal of solid waste contributing 2.6%—making it a dominant source.
Regarding Domestic Solid Waste (DSW) disposal, in practice, the organic fraction is commonly mixed with recyclables and other types of waste, ultimately being disposed of in open dumps or sanitary landfills [9]. This mismanagement not only prevents the valorization of organic residues into valuable products such as compost or biogas but also exacerbates environmental impacts, including methane emissions and leachate generation, thereby undermining circular economy initiatives as established by the Brazilian National Solid Waste Policy [10], of which composting is an essential component. Therefore, any realistic improvement in DSW management must consider the specific impacts of handling domestic organic waste (DOW).
The Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) methodology is an internationally accepted decision-support tool for quantifying the environmental impacts of MSW systems, due to its holistic perspective in identifying the most appropriate sustainable solutions [11]. Some recent studies have applied LCA to MSW in different Brazilian locations with treatments to specific MSW flows and using different scenarios: Goiânia (Midwest region [12], Brasília (Midwest region, [13]), state of Minas Gerais (Southeast region, [14]), area of Espírito Santo (Southeast Brazil, [15]), Humaitá (North region, [16]), and Paraíba state (Northeast region, [17]). While all six studies employ life-cycle or sustainability-based methods to quantify the environmental performance of MSW management, they differ in their technological focus (e.g., landfilling, composting, energy recovery), geographic and climatic contexts, and the depth of integration with economic and social dimensions.
This study applies the LCA methodology to quantify the carbon emissions associated with OSW management in the city of João Pessoa (Northeast Brazil) and then compare these emissions with an alternative scenario proposed in the Municipal Solid Waste Plan. A temporal assessment is conducted for the period 2022–2034, considering two scenarios: Scenario 1, in which the organic fraction is mixed with MSW and disposed of in the sanitary landfill (business as usual, BAU), and Scenario 2, in which progressively increasing composting rates are implemented for DOW in combination with traditional landfilling, in accordance with the municipal plan. Based on the plan’s strategy of expanding composting facilities to reduce DOW landfilling, this study is guided by the following hypotheses: (H1) increasing the composting rate leads to a measurable reduction in carbon emissions from the municipal waste management system; (H2) the long-term adoption of composting as a complementary treatment improves the environmental performance of DOW management when compared to the BAU scenario. To address these hypotheses, the research objectives are: (i) to model the carbon emissions associated with the current and planned DOW management strategies, and (ii) to evaluate the comparative environmental performance of both scenarios over time.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Area and Reference Data

The city of João Pessoa, situated on the Atlantic coast in Northeast Brazil, spans an area of approximately 211 km2. It has an average altitude of 37 m above sea level, with a tropical monsoon climate (Am) according to the Köppen–Geiger classification, and an average annual temperature of 26 °C. The 2022 census population was 833,932, with a population density of 3970.27 inhab/km2 [18].
The Metropolitan Sanitary Landfill of João Pessoa was inaugurated in 2003 and represents a significant legal and environmental milestone for the region, following the decommissioning of the former open dump site. The facility is estimated to have an operational lifespan of 40 years, with closure projected for 2043. It was designed with 24 engineered cells, each with a final capacity of approximately 450,000 m3, occupying a total area of 100 hectares. The landfill serves a consortium of 11 municipalities and has a daily waste intake capacity of around 2400 tonnes. The installation is equipped with advanced physical–chemical leachate treatment systems and an integrated biogas capture and energy recovery system, contributing to the reduction in greenhouse gas emissions and promoting sustainable waste management practices. Figure 1 shows the location of João Pessoa and of its metropolitan sanitary landfill.
In 2014, the Municipal Solid Waste Plan for João Pessoa was published, covering 20 years (2014–2034) [19]. The plan was developed to comply with Federal Law 12.305/2010 [10], which established the Brazilian National Solid Waste Policy. Data from the Municipal Solid Waste Plan of João Pessoa for the period 2022–2034 [19] were used, focusing on OSW. 2022 is chosen as the starting year because it is the most recent year for which census data is available.
The organic fraction of the MSW of João Pessoa originates mainly from households and commercial centers (domestic organic waste, DOW) and from urban pruning or green waste (GW). The MSW in João Pessoa is collected mainly as mixed waste by collection vehicles that take pre-selected routes. The waste is collected in a mixed form (regular collection) and is transported directly to the sanitary landfill. GW is collected in the city by a truck and then sent to the landfill. A small portion of recyclable waste is collected door-to-door by formal waste-pickers organized in associations [20]. However, this door-to-door recyclable waste selective collection program has not yet been fully implemented throughout the city.
In the gravimetric composition of DSW in João Pessoa, the DOW fraction accounts for 35% of the total mass that arrives at the landfill, followed by green waste (GW, from urban pruning) at 16% [19]. Therefore, 51% of the DSW that arrives at the João Pessoa landfill is of organic nature, although the progressive composting rates will be only applied to DOW according to the Municipal Solid Waste Plan. It is considered that GW is entirely composted since the beginning of the analysis.
In the Municipal Solid Waste Plan, the population increase was projected using the geometric growth method, based on census data from 2000 to 2010 and applying a growth rate of 1.92% per year. Herein, the same projection is employed, starting from 2023.
Projection for MSW applied a per capita rate of 0.94 kg/inhab.day, along with the population projection over the period. The projection of population is shown in Table 1, along with projections for DSW, DOW, and GW.

2.2. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is internationally standardized by the International Organization for Standardization [21,22] and can be described as a methodology to quantify the potential environmental impacts associated with a service, product, or activity [23]. LCA can be applied to the entire life cycle of a product (extraction of raw materials, manufacture, transportation, operation and maintenance, and final disposal) or just to one phase. The LCA was developed in accordance with the methodological framework established by [21,22] standards, which define four complementary phases:
(i) Goal and Scope Definition—This phase establishes the purpose of the study, the system boundaries, the functional unit, and the intended applications of the results. It determines what is to be studied and why.
A combination of primary and secondary data was used to build the system inventory. Input data were obtained directly from the city’s Municipal Solid Waste Plan and from the sanitary landfill administration [19]. For this study, the treatment of one tonne (1000 kg) of OSW was adopted as the functional unit, and the reference flow MSW should be understood as the total organic waste generated in the city (DOW and GW). The system boundaries and flows considered transportation to the landfill site, electricity consumption, and operations at the landfill.
Scenario 1 considers the 2022 situation in the municipality of João Pessoa, where all OSW (DOW + GW) is landfilled with mixed waste, as shown in the LCA boundaries of Figure 2.
Scenario 2 (Figure 3) considers the segregation of waste with progressive increases in the percentage of composted DOW, as established in the Municipal Solid Waste Plan.
(ii) Life Cycle Inventory (LCI)—In this phase, all relevant data on inputs (e.g., materials, energy, water) and outputs (e.g., products, emissions, waste) throughout the system’s life cycle are collected and quantified.
The collection and transportation of MSW are performed by trucks with capacities of 16 t and 11 t, respectively. The landfill is located 25 km from the city center. Transportation operations within the landfill were 0.5 km. These distances were estimated using Google Maps.
The electricity for the operation of the sanitary landfill was provided by the company responsible for its management, and it was consumed at a rate of 0.041 kWh/t of waste. For the environmental impacts associated with electricity, the composition mixes of electricity for 2022–2024 were used along with the method proposed by Carvalho and Delgado [24]. The 2025–2034 projections follow [25,26].
For the landfill treatment in Scenario 1, the process of MSW treatment within a sanitary landfill was employed. For Scenario 2, the previous landfilling process was combined with a composting process, as described by Gomes et al. [27] and McDougall et al. [28], who reported that the emissions associated with composting account for 20% of the emissions associated with landfilling.
The focus of this study is the OSW flows that arrive at the landfill and the composting targets set by the Municipal Solid Waste Plan of João Pessoa, aiming to achieve a 50% composting rate of organic waste by 2034 (Table 2).
In Table 2, after 2023 it is considered that the OSW for composting is constituted by GW plus the corresponding fraction of DOW according to the % goals established by the Municipal Solid Waste Plan of João Pessoa.
(iii) Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)—The inventory data are translated into potential environmental impacts using characterization models, enabling evaluation of categories such as climate change, resource depletion, and ecosystem effects.
SimaPro 9.6.0.1 software [29] was used to develop the LCA, with the database Ecoinvent 3.8 [30]. Due to current concerns about climate change and the need for information on management strategies toward a more environmentally friendly and sustainable MSW treatment, the IPCC 2021 GWP 100y environmental impact assessment method [31] was selected. This method expresses the environmental impacts in terms of carbon dioxide equivalent (CO2-eq).
(iv) Interpretation—The results from the inventory and impact assessment are analyzed and discussed to draw conclusions, identify improvement opportunities, assess data quality, and support decision-making.
This final phase involves evaluating and discussing the results to identify the most significant sources of environmental impact and to compare the performance of the two management scenarios.

3. Results and Discussion

The carbon emissions associated with landfilling are 606 kg CO2-eq/t MSW, and they are 121 kg CO2-eq/t MSW for composting. Transportation in the diesel-fueled trucks emits 6.59 kg CO2-eq/t MSW for 25 km. For the tractor operations within the landfill, the emissions are 0.186 kg CO2-eq/t MSW.
Figure 4 illustrates the OSW collected for BAU and the corresponding carbon emissions, which display increasing trends. The accumulated emissions are 825 Mt CO2-eq.
For Scenario 2, progressive percentages of composting were applied to DOW (Table 2). Please note that GW is entirely considered as being composted after 2023. Figure 5 illustrates the amount of OSW for this combined disposal (landfill and composting).
Assuming that the goals established in the Municipal Plan are met, Scenario 2 will produce approximately 704 Mt CO2-eq throughout the study period. Figure 6 shows the dynamics of carbon emissions throughout time.
The overall carbon emissions in Scenario 2 represent a 15% reduction (121 Mt CO2-eq) compared to Scenario 1 during the study period. Figure 7 shows a comparison of the carbon emissions of Scenarios 1 and 2.
The results presented herein demonstrate the need for measures to reduce waste generation and the urgency to implement new strategies for MSW management. As more MSW reaches the landfill, the landfill’s lifespan is progressively shortened, requiring planning and financial resources for expansion and the construction of new landfilling units.
To assess the robustness of the results, a brief sensitivity analysis was conducted considering two key parameters: transport distance to the landfill and the organic fraction of municipal solid waste. When the transport distance was increased from the baseline value (25 km) to 35 km and 45 km, total GHG emissions from the BAU scenario rose by approximately 0.74% and 1.46%, respectively, due to the higher diesel consumption associated with longer transport routes. When following the Municipal Plan, the emissions increased by 0.61% and 1.21%, respectively.
Increasing the organic fraction content from the reference level (35%) to 40% and 45% led to an increase in total GHG emissions of approximately 12.80% and 25.59% for the BAU scenario. Following the progressive implementation of composting for DOW and entire composting of GW, emissions increased by 14.18% and 28.48% compared to the original Municipal Plan and the reference level of the organic fraction. Despite these variations, the composting scenario consistently achieved lower emissions than exclusive landfilling—maintaining reductions of 14–17% relative to the BAU scenario under all tested conditions. These results confirm that the environmental benefits of composting remain robust even under less favorable waste composition and logistical conditions.
Adequate and sustainable solid waste management must consider that different types of waste require specific types of treatment or final destinations. In the case of João Pessoa, the LCA results showed that Scenario 2 (combined use of landfill and composting for DOW, and composting for GW) presented lower emissions than Scenario 1 (landfilling only for DOW and GW), as expected.
Regarding more recent studies, Yeo et al. [32] verified that the BAU scenario in Côte d’Ivoire emitted 0.9 t CO2-eq/t OSW, and composting emitted 0.116 t CO2-eq/t OSW, equivalent to only 13% of baseline emissions. Ouedraogo et al. [33] conducted an LCA in the USA and verified that landfilling without LFG collection emitted 1749 kg CO2-eq/t MSW compared to 719 kg CO2-eq/t MSW for landfilling and composting 115 kg CO2-eq/t MSW. The values corroborate the results obtained in this study.
Cocarta et al. [34] investigated the health risks associated with different MSW treatment options. They emphasized the importance of local context factors, highlighting that treatment technology alone is insufficient, as the local operational and environmental context plays a crucial role. In the present study for João Pessoa, the relevance of local context underscores the need to integrate context-specific parameters when estimating emissions reduction potentials. Unlike Cocarta et al. [34], our focus is on the environmental benefits, in terms of GHG emissions, of composting and landfilling pathways in a tropical urban setting, rather than health risk endpoints. However, the following methodological implication remains: both works reinforce that the choice of technology must be assessed in conjunction with the local context to understand its actual impact in the real world. Although our study focuses on quantifying GHG emission reductions through the diversion of organic waste to composting, the results corroborate the central premise of Andreottola et al. [35] that integrated and diversified treatment schemes represent the most effective pathway toward sustainable waste management. Such approaches reinforce the need for local planning strategies that simultaneously address environmental, technical, and operational dimensions.
It is worth noting that the present study focused solely on the final waste disposal stage; however, the importance of environmental education within the city’s solid waste management system should be reinforced. In Figure 7, it is evident that despite the reduction in carbon emissions presented by Scenario 2, the ongoing growth in waste generation will ultimately lead to an increase in overall carbon emissions. This analysis provides preliminary, planning-level estimates of GHG emissions intended to support municipal decision-making rather than detailed operational modeling. The primary purpose of this assessment is to provide reference values and comparative insights that can inform policy formulation, investment prioritization, and the design of monitoring systems once composting facilities are operational.
The implementation of environmental education and public policy measures is fundamental to ensuring the long-term success of the Municipal Solid Waste Plan. Environmental education initiatives should be integrated across multiple societal levels, combining school-based programs, community workshops, and public awareness campaigns to promote behavioral change regarding waste segregation and composting practices. The municipal environmental agency can coordinate educational actions in partnership with local schools, universities, and civil society organizations.
Simultaneously, public policies should establish the institutional and financial conditions for this transition by creating incentive mechanisms (e.g., tax benefits, grants, or subsidies for composting infrastructure), establishing regulatory instruments that mandate waste separation at the source, and monitoring frameworks to track participation rates and environmental outcomes. These combined educational and policy interventions can foster social engagement, increase adherence to composting programs, and strengthen the circular management of organic waste. Importantly, aligning environmental education with municipal policy ensures that the proposed waste management strategies evolve beyond technical solutions to become socially embedded and institutionally supported actions, promoting durable sustainability outcomes for the city of João Pessoa.
The focus of this study is exclusively on landfilling and composting, as these are the strategies formally incorporated into the Municipal Solid Waste Plan of João Pessoa. While other treatment technologies—such as anaerobic digestion, incineration, or mechanical-biological treatment—could potentially contribute to waste valorization, their consideration lies beyond the scope of the current plan and available local infrastructure. Future studies could expand this assessment to include such alternatives, enabling a broader evaluation of technical feasibility and environmental performance in the regional context.
Ultimately, it is crucial to implement long-term strategies that focus on reducing waste generation at its source, particularly through environmental education, community engagement, and policy initiatives. These actions are fundamental to achieving the objectives of the 2030 Agenda, particularly SDG 11, which advocates sustainable urban development; SDG 12, which emphasizes the need for responsible consumption and production patterns; and SDG 13, which calls for urgent action to combat climate change. Only by integrating waste prevention, resource recovery, and behavioral change can cities effectively mitigate the environmental impacts of solid waste and contribute to a low-carbon, circular economy.

4. Conclusions

This study presented a prospective assessment of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions associated with the management of the organic fraction of Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in João Pessoa, in line with the city’s Municipal Solid Waste Plan. Using municipal projections, primary operational data, and secondary datasets, the analysis compared two management scenarios: business-as-usual (exclusive landfilling) and progressive composting implementation for DOW, from 20% in 2023 until reaching 50% in 2034, and the remainder being landfilled. In the second scenario, urban pruning waste is entirely composted.
Throughout the study period (2022–2034), the amount of MSW collected increases, which is accompanied by increases in population, urbanization, living standards, and affluence. As the amount of MSW (and consequently the amount of Organic Solid Waste, OSW) reaching the landfill increases throughout time, the carbon emissions also increase.
The BAU scenario accumulates 825 Mt CO2-eq throughout the study period, versus 704 Mt CO2-eq for progressive increases in the composting of DOW. This results in a 15% reduction in emissions (121 Mt CO2-eq). Sensitivity assessments verified the impact of increasing the transportation distance of MSW from 25 km to 35 km and then 45 km. The fraction of OSW within MSW was then increased from 35% to 40% and then 45%. While total GHG emissions increase with longer transport distances and higher organic fractions, the comparative advantage of composting over landfilling remains unchanged. These results demonstrate a significant potential reduction in GHG emissions through composting, confirming its relevance as a low-carbon strategy for urban waste management.
This study provides valuable reference indicators to guide policymakers in prioritizing sustainable waste treatment investments, as applications of life cycle assessment (LCA) to MSW management remain limited in Northeast Brazil. This study advances current knowledge by establishing a detailed inventory of the material flows and GHG emissions associated with the organic fraction of MSW in João Pessoa, thereby evidencing the significant role of this sector in the city’s overall contribution to global warming.
Future research can include the assessment of social and economic aspects, such as the investment and operational costs of composting facilities, to complement the environmental analysis presented in this study and support a more comprehensive sustainability evaluation. Further studies can also assess compost quality parameters in accordance with national and international standards, thereby complementing the environmental assessment and supporting the practical implementation of composting strategies.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, M.C., S.G.F.d.C. and C.C.N.; methodology, M.C., S.G.F.d.C. and C.C.N.; software, M.C. and S.G.F.d.C.; validation, M.C., S.G.F.d.C., R.B.L., M.L.d.L.M., J.L.F.V., C.C.N. and R.A.; formal analysis, M.C., S.G.F.d.C. and C.C.N.; investigation, S.G.F.d.C., R.B.L., M.L.d.L.M. and J.L.F.V.; resources, M.C.; data curation, S.G.F.d.C. and C.C.N.; writing—original draft preparation, M.C., S.G.F.d.C. and C.C.N.; writing—review and editing, M.C., S.G.F.d.C., R.B.L., M.L.d.L.M., J.L.F.V., C.C.N. and R.A.; visualization, M.C., S.G.F.d.C., R.B.L., M.L.d.L.M., J.L.F.V., C.C.N. and R.A.; supervision, M.C. and C.C.N.; project administration, M.C. and C.C.N.; funding acquisition, M.C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

The authors are grateful for the support of the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development—CNPq (Research Productivity Grants nº 303180/2025-0 and 301463/2025-5). The authors also wish to thank the Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel (CAPES) for the scholarships.

Data Availability Statement

Data are available upon request.

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the Laboratory of Environmental and Energy Assessments (LAvAE) of the Federal University of Paraiba (UFPB), and express gratitude to the Science Foundation Ireland.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Abbreviations

The following abbreviations are used in this manuscript:
BAUBusiness As Usual
DOWDomestic Organic Waste
DSWDomestic Solid Waste
GHGGreenhouse Gas
GWGreen Waste
IPCCIntergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
LCALife Cycle Assessment
LCILife Cycle Inventory
LCIALife Cycle Impact Assessment
MSWMunicipal Solid Waste
OSWOrganic Solid Waste
PAHPolycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons
SDGSustainable Development Goal

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Figure 1. Location of João Pessoa and the Sanitary Landfill. Source: Authors (2025).
Figure 1. Location of João Pessoa and the Sanitary Landfill. Source: Authors (2025).
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Figure 2. MSW management currently used in the municipality of João Pessoa, and the system boundary considered in Scenario 1.
Figure 2. MSW management currently used in the municipality of João Pessoa, and the system boundary considered in Scenario 1.
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Figure 3. MSW management for Scenario 2 as established by the Municipal Plan of João Pessoa for organic solid waste.
Figure 3. MSW management for Scenario 2 as established by the Municipal Plan of João Pessoa for organic solid waste.
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Figure 4. Carbon emissions and amount of Organic Solid Waste for Scenario 1 (2022–2034).
Figure 4. Carbon emissions and amount of Organic Solid Waste for Scenario 1 (2022–2034).
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Figure 5. Amount of Organic Solid Waste for Scenario 2 (landfill + composting, 2022–2034).
Figure 5. Amount of Organic Solid Waste for Scenario 2 (landfill + composting, 2022–2034).
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Figure 6. Carbon emissions for Scenario 2 (landfill + composting, 2022–2034).
Figure 6. Carbon emissions for Scenario 2 (landfill + composting, 2022–2034).
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Figure 7. Comparison of the carbon emissions associated with Scenarios 1 (landfill, lighter blue bars) and 2 (progressive implementation of composting for DOW, darker blue bars) during 2022–2034.
Figure 7. Comparison of the carbon emissions associated with Scenarios 1 (landfill, lighter blue bars) and 2 (progressive implementation of composting for DOW, darker blue bars) during 2022–2034.
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Table 1. Projections of population, domestic solid waste (DSW), domestic organic waste (DOW), green waste (GW), and total organic solid waste (OSW) in João Pessoa for 2022–2034.
Table 1. Projections of population, domestic solid waste (DSW), domestic organic waste (DOW), green waste (GW), and total organic solid waste (OSW) in João Pessoa for 2022–2034.
YearPopulationDSW (t)DOW (t)GW (t)Total OSW (t)
2022833,932263,203.0092,121.0542,112.48134,233.53
2023849,943266,797.2693,379.0442,687.56136,066.60
2024866,262271,919.7795,171.9243,507.16138,679.08
2025882,895277,140.6396,999.2244,342.50141,341.72
2026899,846282,461.7398,861.6145,193.88144,055.48
2027917,123287,885.00100,759.7546,061.60146,821.35
2028934,732293,412.39102,694.3446,945.98149,640.32
2029952,679299,045.90104,666.0747,847.34152,513.41
2030970,970304,787.59106,675.6648,766.01155,441.67
2031989,613310,639.51108,723.8349,702.32158,426.15
20321,008,614316,603.79110,811.3350,656.61161,467.93
20331,027,979322,682.58112,938.9051,629.21164,568.12
20341,047,716328,878.08115,107.3352,620.49167,727.82
Source: Calculated by authors with data from [18,19].
Table 2. OSW flows for the study period (2022–2034) (both development scenarios).
Table 2. OSW flows for the study period (2022–2034) (both development scenarios).
YearScenario 1Scenario 2
OSW for Landfill (t)Goal(%)OSW for Landfill
(t)		OSW for Composting **
(t)
2022134,233.53--134,233.530
2023136,066.60120 *74,703.2361,363.37
2024138,679.0876,137.5462,541.55
2025141,341.7277,599.3863,742.34
2026144,055.4879,089.2864,966.20
2027146,821.35230 *70,531.8276,289.52
2028149,640.3271,886.0377,754.28
2029152,513.4173,266.2579,247.16
2030155,441.6774,672.9680,768.71
2031158,426.15340 *65,234.3093,191.85
2032161,467.9366,486.8094,981.14
2033164,568.1267,763.3496,804.77
2034167,727.82450 *57,553.66110,174.16
Source: Authors, with data from [19]. * Percentage of DOW that is composted. ** This includes the percentage of DOW composted, plus all GW.
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MDPI and ACS Style

Carvalho, M.; Costa, S.G.F.d.; Lins, R.B.; Macieira, M.L.d.L.; Virgolino, J.L.F.; Nóbrega, C.C.; Abrahao, R. Carbon Emissions Associated with Organic Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: A Brazilian Case Study. Resources 2025, 14, 178. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14120178

AMA Style

Carvalho M, Costa SGFd, Lins RB, Macieira MLdL, Virgolino JLF, Nóbrega CC, Abrahao R. Carbon Emissions Associated with Organic Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: A Brazilian Case Study. Resources. 2025; 14(12):178. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14120178

Chicago/Turabian Style

Carvalho, Monica, Samara Gonçalves Fernandes da Costa, Raíssa Barreto Lins, Milca Laís da Luz Macieira, Julia Lessa Feitosa Virgolino, Claudia Coutinho Nóbrega, and Raphael Abrahao. 2025. "Carbon Emissions Associated with Organic Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: A Brazilian Case Study" Resources 14, no. 12: 178. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14120178

APA Style

Carvalho, M., Costa, S. G. F. d., Lins, R. B., Macieira, M. L. d. L., Virgolino, J. L. F., Nóbrega, C. C., & Abrahao, R. (2025). Carbon Emissions Associated with Organic Solid Waste Management in Developing Countries: A Brazilian Case Study. Resources, 14(12), 178. https://doi.org/10.3390/resources14120178

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