Towards a New Conceptual Model of AI-Enhanced Learning for College Students: The Roles of Artificial Intelligence Capabilities, General Self-Efficacy, Learning Motivation, and Critical Thinking Awareness
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Background
1.2. Research Purpose and Significance
2. Relevant Research
2.1. AI Capability
2.2. Critical Thinking Awareness
2.3. General Self-Efficacy
2.4. Learning Motivation
2.5. Research Hypothesis
3. Research Methods and Hypothesis Model
3.1. Hypothesis and Model Construction
3.2. Design of Questionnaire
3.3. Research Methodology
3.4. Data Collection
4. Research Data Analysis and Result
4.1. Reliability Analysis and Validity Tests
4.2. Exploratory Factor Analysis
4.3. Confirmatory Factor Analysis
4.4. Results of the Structural Equation Model
4.5. Analysis of Mediation Effects
5. Discussions
5.1. The Insignificant Impact of Artificial Intelligence Capabilities on Critical Thinking Awareness
5.2. The Significant Impact of Artificial Intelligence Capabilities on General Self-Efficacy
5.3. The Significant Impact of Artificial Intelligence Capabilities on Learning Motivation
5.4. The Significant Impact of General Self-Efficacy on Learning Motivation and Critical Thinking Awareness
5.5. The Significant Impact of Learning Motivation on Critical Thinking Awareness
6. Conclusions and Suggestions
6.1. Theoretical Implications
6.2. Practical Implications
- (1)
- Enhancing students’ general self-confidence. This research demonstrates that AI could have a positive impact on college students’ general self-confidence. Colleges could regularly host AI project exhibitions for students to present and exchange experiences, fostering success and greater confidence. Administrators could also regularly survey students using AI tools to gather their needs and provide prompt feedback, making students feel valued and enhancing their general self-confidence.
- (2)
- Using AI to boost learning motivation through personalized teaching. Colleges could gather performance and interest data and utilize AI to analyze learning patterns, creating tailored plans for each student, for example, assigning topics based on students’ interests to stimulate enthusiasm. Additionally, creating interactive course materials, using AI for real-time Q&A, assessing progress, and timely encouragement of students to enhance their engagement. Hosting interdisciplinary seminars could also spark curiosity and improve motivation.
- (3)
- AI capabilities could enhance critical thinking awareness through general self-confidence and motivation. Colleges could develop programs that integrate AI to analyze learning and provide immediate feedback to help students understand their progress, thereby building confidence. In other words, college students who possess elevated levels of general self-efficacy and motivation for learning are likely to demonstrate improved performance in critical thinking awareness. The application of artificial intelligence (AI) technology for monitoring educational achievements, identifying shortcomings in critical thinking, and implementing tailored corrective measures will provide educators with actionable insights to gain a comprehensive understanding of students’ skill mastery and to implement specific improvements.
6.3. Limitations and Future Research
- (1)
- Owing to the influence of various cognitive variables, including genetic factors, the present study did not account for the genetic impact and instead focused solely on investigating the effects of motivational variables, such as general self-efficacy and learning motivation, on critical thinking awareness. Consequently, future research endeavors may seek to complement these findings by considering the influence of genetic factors.
- (2)
- The proposed path model in the article (CFl = 0.903) is marginally accepted as it maintains some non-significant or marginally significant relationships. Overall, while the model fit is preliminarily validated, caution should be exercised in interpreting the results due to the uncertainty in the strength of some relationships, and they should not be considered definitive. Future research should replicate and verify the study to establish more stable mechanisms of influence among variables in the proposed path model.
- (3)
- This study examines the relevance of Reinforcement Learning Theory (RBT) to the topic, but it has not been fully utilized. RBT emphasizes positive reinforcement to influence motivation and behavior, which may explain the relationship between motivation and critical thinking. Further research is needed to validate the applicability of RBT in this field. Future studies could be based on RBT assumptions or comparative theoretical frameworks. While it is currently difficult to draw definitive conclusions, RBT provides a perspective for subsequent work, such as how reinforcement affects beliefs and how task learning activities influence critical thinking. Overall, this study lays the groundwork for a more in-depth exploration of RBT, but there is a need for a more systematic application and comparative evaluation of its outcomes.
- (4)
- Future research endeavors could compare the impacts of AI across various disciplines, thereby furnishing comprehensive references for diverse subject applications.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A
Construct | Coding | Item |
---|---|---|
AI capability | AIC1 | Our instructors possess the ability to comprehend the challenges we encounter in our learning process and provide guidance on utilizing AI to address these issues. |
AIC2 | Sufficient time is allocated by the school for the completion of AI-related learning projects. | |
AIC3 | The institution has explored or implemented cloud-based services for data processing and the operation of AI and machine learning. | |
AIC4 | The school furnishes the necessary hardware (such as CPUs and GPUs) to support our AI learning and projects. | |
AIC5 | The school has invested in network infrastructure (e.g., campus network) that facilitates efficient collaboration, characterized by high speed and low latency. | |
AIC6 | The school supports our use of multiple computers to handle substantial AI data. | |
AIC7 | The school provides cloud services such as Tencent Cloud and Baidu Cloud to enable various AI capabilities. | |
AIC8 | The school offers scalable cloud data storage for our AI learning. | |
AIC9 | The school places emphasis on fostering teamwork. | |
AIC10 | The school prioritizes cultivating shared objectives. | |
AIC11 | The school values collaborative division of labor. | |
AIC12 | The school emphasizes cultivating a unified understanding. | |
AIC13 | The school emphasizes fostering mutual comprehension. | |
AIC14 | The school emphasizes cultivating the sharing of information. | |
AIC15 | The school emphasizes fostering the sharing of resources. | |
AIC16 | We are capable of anticipating the conflicting emotions that may arise among peers due to changes brought about by AI learning. | |
AIC17 | We consider streamlining learning and workflow processes. | |
AIC18 | We recognize the need for gradual adaptation when learning new concepts. | |
AIC19 | We are able to elucidate to our peers the significance of learning AI. | |
AIC20 | We are willing to proactively adjust our learning methods for the sake of AI education. | |
AIC21 | Our class teacher is supportive of our AI learning endeavors. | |
AIC22 | Our instructor demonstrates a clear understanding of the appropriate applications of AI. | |
AIC23 | Within our class, we are unafraid to take on high-risk AI projects, recognizing their potential for significant returns. | |
AIC24 | In our class, we are willing to boldly attempt and complete the AI tasks assigned by our teacher. | |
AIC25 | When it comes to AI learning, we proactively engage to achieve the best outcomes. | |
AIC26 | The school teaches us how to acquire various forms of unstructured data for AI analysis. | |
AIC27 | We are instructed on how to integrate data from different sources in various formats. | |
AIC28 | The school encourages us to connect with real-world scenarios, integrating practical data with theoretical knowledge. | |
AIC29 | We are encouraged to share our AI learning achievements with our peers. | |
AIC30 | Our teachers educate us on the rapid preparation and cleansing of AI data. | |
AIC31 | We are taught how to extract valuable data at different granularities as needed. | |
AIC32 | Our AI course instructors demonstrate strong leadership abilities. | |
AIC33 | The teachers can anticipate our needs in AI learning and proactively design the curriculum. | |
AIC34 | The teachers are adept at organizing our AI learning activities. | |
AIC35 | The AI instructors are deeply committed and take the lead in learning AI knowledge. | |
AIC36 | The school provides sufficient financial support for AI learning projects. | |
AIC37 | Our AI learning groups are adequately sized and have well-organized divisions of labor. | |
AIC38 | The school is open to hearing students’ suggestions on how to utilize AI to improve teaching. | |
Critical thinking awareness | CTA1 | During the process of learning, I engage in critical thinking to assess the accuracy of the knowledge acquired. |
CTA2 | During the process of learning, I evaluate the value of new information or evidence presented to me. | |
CTA3 | During the process of learning, I endeavor to comprehend the content learned from various perspectives. | |
CTA4 | During the process of learning, I assess different opinions to determine their rationality. | |
CTA5 | During the process of learning, I am able to discern which information is credible and trustworthy. | |
CTA6 | During the process of learning, I will identify facts that are supported by evidence in the learning process. | |
General self-efficacy | GSE1 | When I exert my best efforts, I consistently demonstrate the ability to resolve issues. |
GSE2 | Despite opposition from others, I possess the capability to attain my desired outcomes. | |
GSE3 | For me, maintaining ideals and achieving objectives comes effortlessly. | |
GSE4 | I am confident in my ability to effectively manage unexpected situations. | |
GSE5 | With my intellect, I am certain that I can navigate unforeseen circumstances. | |
GSE6 | By exerting the necessary effort, I am assured of my capacity to address the majority of challenges. | |
GSE7 | I am able to confront difficulties calmly, as I trust in my problem-solving abilities. | |
GSE8 | When faced with a challenge, I typically identify several potential solutions. | |
GSE9 | In times of trouble, I am usually able to devise various coping strategies. | |
GSE10 | Regardless of the circumstances, I am adept at handling any situation that arises. | |
Learning attitude | LA1 | I find the study of courses to be both engaging and valuable. |
LA2 | I am eager to acquire more knowledge and gain further insights into the content of the courses. | |
LA3 | I believe that investing time in learning about course-related subjects is worthwhile. | |
LA4 | I consider mastering courses to be crucial for my personal development. | |
LA5 | Understanding the relationship between courses and the living environment is significant to me. | |
LA6 | I actively seek out additional information to enhance my understanding of the courses. | |
LA7 | I believe that the study of courses is essential for everyone. |
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Scenarios of AI Education | AI-Related Technology |
---|---|
Assessment of students and schools | Adaptive learning methodologies and personalized learning approach, academic analytics |
Grading and evaluation of papers and exams | Image recognition, computer-vision, prediction system |
Personalized intelligent teaching | Data mining or Bayesian knowledge interference, intelligent teaching systems, learning analytics |
Smart facilities | Facial recognition, speech recognition, virtual labs, A/R, V/R, hearing and sensing technologies |
Online and mobile remote education | Edge computing, virtual personalized assistants, real-time analysis |
Item | Mean | Std. Deviation | CITC | Cronbach’s α If Item Deleted | Cronbach’s α |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIC1 | 5.143 | 1.060 | 0.603 | 0.963 | 0.964 |
AIC2 | 5.102 | 1.118 | 0.622 | 0.963 | |
AIC3 | 5.127 | 1.126 | 0.625 | 0.963 | |
AIC4 | 5.129 | 1.249 | 0.670 | 0.962 | |
AIC5 | 5.061 | 1.234 | 0.629 | 0.963 | |
AIC6 | 4.989 | 1.260 | 0.641 | 0.963 | |
AIC7 | 4.733 | 1.405 | 0.577 | 0.963 | |
AIC8 | 5.118 | 1.172 | 0.630 | 0.963 | |
AIC9 | 5.600 | 1.088 | 0.556 | 0.963 | |
AIC10 | 5.564 | 1.039 | 0.592 | 0.963 | |
AIC11 | 5.578 | 1.037 | 0.543 | 0.963 | |
AIC12 | 5.248 | 1.098 | 0.567 | 0.963 | |
AIC13 | 5.454 | 1.031 | 0.568 | 0.963 | |
AIC14 | 5.396 | 1.080 | 0.613 | 0.963 | |
AIC15 | 5.567 | 1.000 | 0.594 | 0.963 | |
AIC16 | 4.914 | 1.166 | 0.545 | 0.963 | |
AIC17 | 5.358 | 0.986 | 0.545 | 0.963 | |
AIC18 | 5.666 | 1.009 | 0.510 | 0.963 | |
AIC19 | 5.383 | 1.037 | 0.580 | 0.963 | |
AIC20 | 5.449 | 1.014 | 0.630 | 0.963 | |
AIC21 | 5.466 | 1.064 | 0.623 | 0.963 | |
AIC22 | 5.342 | 1.083 | 0.677 | 0.962 | |
AIC23 | 4.956 | 1.206 | 0.594 | 0.963 | |
AIC24 | 5.118 | 1.182 | 0.663 | 0.962 | |
AIC25 | 5.268 | 1.072 | 0.656 | 0.962 | |
AIC26 | 5.190 | 1.067 | 0.687 | 0.962 | |
AIC27 | 5.256 | 1.100 | 0.696 | 0.962 | |
AIC28 | 5.245 | 1.131 | 0.695 | 0.962 | |
AIC29 | 5.411 | 1.014 | 0.663 | 0.962 | |
AIC30 | 5.316 | 1.094 | 0.683 | 0.962 | |
AIC31 | 5.176 | 1.093 | 0.682 | 0.962 | |
AIC32 | 5.174 | 1.240 | 0.726 | 0.962 | |
AIC33 | 5.157 | 1.170 | 0.674 | 0.962 | |
AIC34 | 5.235 | 1.171 | 0.691 | 0.962 | |
AIC35 | 5.385 | 1.146 | 0.697 | 0.962 | |
AIC36 | 4.829 | 1.235 | 0.634 | 0.963 | |
AIC37 | 5.154 | 1.111 | 0.629 | 0.963 | |
AIC38 | 5.122 | 1.158 | 0.708 | 0.962 | |
CTA1 | 5.617 | 1.054 | 0.557 | 0.786 | 0.812 |
CTA2 | 5.571 | 1.011 | 0.587 | 0.780 | |
CTA3 | 5.543 | 1.011 | 0.583 | 0.780 | |
CTA4 | 5.630 | 1.070 | 0.627 | 0.770 | |
CTA5 | 5.403 | 1.068 | 0.506 | 0.798 | |
CTA6 | 5.392 | 1.014 | 0.580 | 0.781 | |
GSE1 | 5.482 | 1.035 | 0.550 | 0.904 | 0.907 |
GSE2 | 4.969 | 1.196 | 0.619 | 0.901 | |
GSE3 | 4.782 | 1.326 | 0.671 | 0.898 | |
GSE4 | 5.030 | 1.178 | 0.712 | 0.895 | |
GSE5 | 4.867 | 1.213 | 0.738 | 0.893 | |
GSE6 | 5.265 | 1.093 | 0.651 | 0.899 | |
GSE7 | 5.259 | 1.088 | 0.701 | 0.896 | |
GSE8 | 5.262 | 1.084 | 0.658 | 0.898 | |
GSE9 | 5.270 | 1.056 | 0.658 | 0.898 | |
GSE10 | 4.887 | 1.253 | 0.715 | 0.895 | |
LM1 | 5.606 | 1.006 | 0.642 | 0.819 | |
LM2 | 5.625 | 1.021 | 0.647 | 0.818 | |
LM3 | 5.708 | 0.936 | 0.654 | 0.818 | 0.846 |
LM4 | 5.804 | 0.997 | 0.627 | 0.821 | |
LM5 | 5.619 | 1.058 | 0.567 | 0.830 | |
LM6 | 5.504 | 1.004 | 0.513 | 0.838 | |
LM7 | 5.667 | 1.050 | 0.577 | 0.829 |
AIC | CTA | GSE | LM | |
---|---|---|---|---|
AIC | 0.687 | |||
CTA | 0.519 | 0.695 | ||
GSE | 0.510 | 0.380 | 0.746 | |
LM | 0.568 | 0.684 | 0.373 | 0.695 |
Item | Un Std. Estimate | Std. Estimate | Std. Error | Z(CR) | Sig. | AVE | CR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIC2 | 1.000 | 0.648 | - | - | - | 0.471 | 0.953 |
AIC3 | 1.012 | 0.651 | 0.068 | 14.895 | 0.001 | ||
AIC4 | 1.182 | 0.686 | 0.076 | 15.572 | 0.001 | ||
AIC5 | 1.103 | 0.647 | 0.074 | 14.822 | 0.001 | ||
AIC6 | 1.136 | 0.653 | 0.076 | 14.936 | 0.001 | ||
AIC8 | 1.011 | 0.625 | 0.070 | 14.375 | 0.001 | ||
AIC21 | 0.912 | 0.621 | 0.064 | 14.298 | 0.001 | ||
AIC22 | 1.005 | 0.673 | 0.066 | 15.314 | 0.001 | ||
AIC24 | 1.082 | 0.663 | 0.071 | 15.132 | 0.001 | ||
AIC25 | 0.966 | 0.648 | 0.065 | 14.929 | 0.001 | ||
AIC26 | 1.029 | 0.699 | 0.067 | 15.819 | 0.001 | ||
AIC27 | 1.085 | 0.715 | 0.069 | 15.983 | 0.001 | ||
AIC28 | 1.105 | 0.708 | 0.061 | 15.093 | 0.001 | ||
AIC29 | 0.926 | 0.661 | 0.067 | 16.162 | 0.001 | ||
AIC30 | 1.083 | 0.717 | 0.067 | 16.159 | 0.001 | ||
AIC31 | 1.082 | 0.717 | 0.067 | 16.159 | 0.001 | ||
AIC32 | 1.316 | 0.769 | 0.077 | 17.121 | 0.001 | ||
AIC33 | 1.161 | 0.719 | 0.072 | 16.203 | 0.001 | ||
AIC34 | 1.184 | 0.732 | 0.072 | 16.448 | 0.001 | ||
AIC35 | 1.162 | 0.735 | 0.070 | 16.496 | 0.001 | ||
AIC36 | 1.150 | 0.675 | 0.075 | 15.355 | 0.001 | ||
AIC37 | 1.009 | 0.658 | 0.067 | 15.035 | 0.001 | ||
AIC38 | 1.182 | 0.740 | 0.071 | 16.585 | 0.001 | ||
CTA2 | 1.000 | 0.663 | - | - | - | 0.483 | 0.737 |
CTA3 | 1.057 | 0.660 | 0.074 | 14.335 | 0.001 | ||
CTA4 | 1.166 | 0.697 | 0.079 | 14.768 | 0.001 | ||
GSE3 | 1.000 | 0.727 | - | - | - | 0.556 | 0.882 |
GSE4 | 0.945 | 0.739 | 0.049 | 19.300 | 0.001 | ||
GSE5 | 0.987 | 0.787 | 0.050 | 19.567 | 0.001 | ||
GSE6 | 0.741 | 0.797 | 0.046 | 16.209 | 0.001 | ||
GSE7 | 0.788 | 0.665 | 0.045 | 17.359 | 0.001 | ||
GSE10 | 0.982 | 0.769 | 0.052 | 18.855 | 0.001 | ||
LA1 | 1.000 | 0.731 | - | - | - | 0.483 | 0.823 |
LA2 | 1.009 | 0.727 | 0.059 | 17.107 | 0.001 | ||
LA3 | 0.906 | 0.712 | 0.054 | 16.765 | 0.001 | ||
LA4 | 0.914 | 0.674 | 0.058 | 15.886 | 0.001 | ||
LA5 | 0.897 | 0.624 | 0.061 | 14.708 | 0.001 |
Common Indices | ×2 | df | ×2/df | PGFI | CFI | PNFI | RMSEA | SRMR |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Judgement criteria | - | - | <3 | >0.5 | >0.9 | >0.5 | <0.10 | <0.08 |
CFA value | 1851.624 | 623 | 2.972 | 0.760 | 0.903 | 0.806 | 0.053 | 0.047 |
Relationship | Un Std. | Std. | S.E. | C.R. | p-Value | Hypotheses | Support |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIC ⇒ CTA | 0.056 | 0.06 | 0.049 | 1.125 | 0.260 | H1 | No |
AIC ⇒ GSE | 0.739 | 0.546 | 0.067 | 11.085 | 0.001 | H2 | Yes |
AIC ⇒ LM | 0.594 | 0.585 | 0.057 | 10.329 | 0.001 | H3 | Yes |
GSE ⇒ CTA | 0.060 | 0.088 | 0.03 | 1.97 | 0.049 | H4 | Yes |
GSE ⇒ LM | 0.083 | 0.110 | 0.035 | 2.352 | 0.019 | H5 | Yes |
LM ⇒ CTA | 0.721 | 0.795 | 0.064 | 11.265 | 0.001 | H6 | Yes |
Item | Path | Effect | SE | t | p-Value | LLCI | ULCI |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Direct effect | AIC ⇒ CTA | 0.110 | 0.038 | 2.898 | 0.004 | 0.036 | 0.185 |
Indirect effect | AIC ⇒ LM | 0.542 | 0.031 | 17.388 | 0.000 | 0.481 | 0.603 |
AIC ⇒ GSE | 0.472 | 0.042 | 11.115 | 0.000 | 0.389 | 0.555 | |
LM ⇒ GSE | 0.220 | 0.044 | 4.951 | 0.000 | 0.133 | 0.308 | |
LM ⇒ CTA | 0.582 | 0.037 | 15.673 | 0.000 | 0.510 | 0.655 | |
GSE ⇒ CTA | 0.192 | 0.033 | 5.904 | 0.000 | 0.128 | 0.256 | |
Total effect | AIC ⇒ CTA | 0.539 | 0.035 | 15.309 | 0.000 | 0.470 | 0.608 |
Item | Effect | Boot SE | Boot LLCI | Boot ULCI | z | p-Value |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
AIC ⇒ LM ⇒ CTA | 0.316 | 0.024 | 0.255 | 0.352 | 13.024 | 0.000 |
AIC ⇒ GSE ⇒ CTA | 0.091 | 0.020 | 0.050 | 0.130 | 4.574 | 0.000 |
AIC ⇒ LM ⇒ GSE ⇒ CTA | 0.023 | 0.007 | 0.010 | 0.038 | 3.230 | 0.001 |
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Jia, X.-H.; Tu, J.-C. Towards a New Conceptual Model of AI-Enhanced Learning for College Students: The Roles of Artificial Intelligence Capabilities, General Self-Efficacy, Learning Motivation, and Critical Thinking Awareness. Systems 2024, 12, 74. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12030074
Jia X-H, Tu J-C. Towards a New Conceptual Model of AI-Enhanced Learning for College Students: The Roles of Artificial Intelligence Capabilities, General Self-Efficacy, Learning Motivation, and Critical Thinking Awareness. Systems. 2024; 12(3):74. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12030074
Chicago/Turabian StyleJia, Xi-Hui, and Jui-Che Tu. 2024. "Towards a New Conceptual Model of AI-Enhanced Learning for College Students: The Roles of Artificial Intelligence Capabilities, General Self-Efficacy, Learning Motivation, and Critical Thinking Awareness" Systems 12, no. 3: 74. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12030074
APA StyleJia, X. -H., & Tu, J. -C. (2024). Towards a New Conceptual Model of AI-Enhanced Learning for College Students: The Roles of Artificial Intelligence Capabilities, General Self-Efficacy, Learning Motivation, and Critical Thinking Awareness. Systems, 12(3), 74. https://doi.org/10.3390/systems12030074