Biology, Genetic Diversity, and Conservation of Wild Bees in Tree Fruit Orchards
Abstract
:Simple Summary
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Types of Bees Found in Orchards
2.1. Based on Nesting Behavior
Species | Nesting Behavior | Foraging Specialization | Social Behavior |
---|---|---|---|
Agapostemon virescens | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena barbara | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena barbilabris | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena bisalicis | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena bradleyi | Ground | Vaccinium specialist | Solitary |
Andrena carlini | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena carolina | Ground | Vaccinium specialist | Solitary |
Andrena cineraria | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena commoda | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena crataegi | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena cressonii | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena dunning | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena forbesii | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena hippotes | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena imitatrix | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena mandibularis | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena miserabilis | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena nasonii | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena nuda | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena perplexa | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena pruni | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena rugosa | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena tridens | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena vicina | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Andrena violae | Ground | Viola specialist | Solitary |
Andrena wilkella | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Anthophora abrupta | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Augochlora pura | Wood | Generalist | Solitary |
Augochloropsis metallica | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Bombus balteatus | Cavity | Generalist | Eusocial |
Bombus bifarius | Cavity | Generalist | Eusocial |
Bombus bimaculatus | Cavity | Generalist | Eusocial |
Bombus flavifrons | Cavity | Generalist | Eusocial |
Bombus griseocollis | Cavity | Generalist | Eusocial |
Bombus impatiens | Cavity | Generalist | Eusocial |
Bombus perplexa | Cavity | Generalist | Eusocial |
Bombus sylvicola | Cavity | Generalist | Eusocial |
Bombus terrestris | Cavity | Generalist | Eusocial |
Bombus vagans | Cavity | Generalist | Eusocial |
Ceratina calcarata | Pith | Generalist | Sub-social |
Ceratina dupla | Pith | Generalist | Sub-social |
Ceratina strenua | Pith | Generalist | Sub-social |
Colletes validus | Ground | Vaccinium specialist | Solitary |
Habropoda laboriosa | Ground | Vaccinium specialist | Solitary |
Halictus confusus | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Halictus ligatus | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Halictus rubicundus | Ground | Generalist | Sub-social |
Hoplitis adunca | Tunnel | Boraginaceae specialist | Solitary |
Hylaeus punctulatissimus | Ground | Lamiaceae specialist | Solitary |
Lasioglossum admirandum | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Lasioglossum cressonii | Wood | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Lasioglossum foxii | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Lasioglossum imitatum | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Lasioglossum pilosum | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Lasioglossum quebecense | Ground | Generalist | Solitary |
Lasioglossum tegulare | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Lasioglossum truncatum | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Lasioglossum versans | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Lasioglossum versatum | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Lasioglossum vierecki | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Lasioglossum zephyrus | Ground | Generalist | Primitively Eusocial |
Megachile addenda | Ground | Fabaceae specialist | Solitary |
Melitta americana | Ground | Vaccinium specialist | Solitary |
Osmia apicata | Tunnel | Onosma specialist | Solitary |
Osmia atriventris | Tunnel | Generalist | Solitary |
Osmia bicornis | Tunnel | Rosaceae specialist | Solitary |
Osmia californica | Tunnel | Generalist | Solitary |
Osmia cerinthidis | Tunnel | Boraginaceae specialist | Solitary |
Osmia cornifrons | Tunnel | Generalist | Solitary |
Osmia cornuta | Tunnel | Generalist | Solitary |
Osmia lignaria | Tunnel | Generalist | Solitary |
Osmia maxillaris | Tunnel | Fabaceae specialist | Solitary |
Osmia maxschwarzi | Tunnel | Fabaceae specialist | Solitary |
Osmia montana | Tunnel | Generalist | Solitary |
Osmia pumila | Tunnel | Generalist | Solitary |
Osmia scheherazade | Tunnel | Fabaceae specialist | Solitary |
Osmia taurus | Tunnel | Generalist | Solitary |
Osmia virga | Tunnel | Vaccinium specialist | Solitary |
Peponapis pruinosa | Ground | Cucurbita specialist | Solitary |
Xylocopa virginica | Wood | Generalist | Semi-social |
2.2. Based on Foraging Preferences
3. Bioecology of Major Species
3.1. Mating Behavior
3.2. Life Cycle
3.3. Foraging Behavior of Orchard Bees
Species | Max Reported Range (m) | Average Reported Range (m) | Bee Size (mm) | Number of Studies |
---|---|---|---|---|
Andrena cineraria | 300 | 300 | 10–14 | 1 |
Andrena vaga | 600 | 555 | 11–15 | 2 |
Andrena barbilabris | 530 | 515 | 10–12 | 2 |
Anthophora abrupta | 12,500 | 12,500 | 14–17 | 1 |
Bombus balteatus | 220.5 | 85.4 | 11–14 | 1 |
Bombus bifarius | 220.5 | 110.25 | 8–14 | 1 |
Bombus flavifrons | 202.5 | 23.8 | 9–12 | 1 |
Bombus sylvicola | 290.5 | 74.7 | 10–14 | 1 |
Bombus terrestris | 2800 | 1137.6 | 20–23 | 8 |
Bombus terrestris (male) | 9900 | 9900 | 20–23 | 1 |
Hoplitis adunca | 1400 | 1400 | 8–12 | 1 |
Hylaeus punctulatissimus | 1100 | 1100 | 6–8 | 1 |
Osmia lignaria | 600 | 600 | 11–12 | 1 |
3.4. Orchard Crop Preference (Food Sources for Adults and Their Offspring)
3.5. Time Matching with Flowering Period
4. Diversity of Bees in Orchards
Genetic Diversity of Orchard Bees
5. Environmental Threats and Multiple Stressors Affecting Orchard Bee Communities
5.1. Pesticide Exposure and Hazard
5.2. Arthropod Pests and Other Natural Enemies
5.3. Parasites and Diseases
5.4. Lack of Nesting Habitats
5.5. Lack of Diverse Floral Food Resources
6. Management and Conservation of Orchard Bees
6.1. Strategies for Enhancing Orchard Bee Nesting Habitats
6.1.1. Ground-Nesting Orchard Bees
6.1.2. Cavity and Tunnel-Nesting Orchard Bees
6.2. Proximity of Forest Habitat Improves Nesting Conditions for Orchard Bees
6.3. Building Artificial Nests for Orchard Bees
6.4. Establishment of Native Floral Plantings to Support Orchard Bee Communities
6.5. Protecting Orchard Bees from Pesticide Hazards
7. Conclusions and Recommendations
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Kline, O.; Phan, N.T.; Porras, M.F.; Chavana, J.; Little, C.Z.; Stemet, L.; Acharya, R.S.; Biddinger, D.J.; Reddy, G.V.P.; Rajotte, E.G.; et al. Biology, Genetic Diversity, and Conservation of Wild Bees in Tree Fruit Orchards. Biology 2023, 12, 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12010031
Kline O, Phan NT, Porras MF, Chavana J, Little CZ, Stemet L, Acharya RS, Biddinger DJ, Reddy GVP, Rajotte EG, et al. Biology, Genetic Diversity, and Conservation of Wild Bees in Tree Fruit Orchards. Biology. 2023; 12(1):31. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12010031
Chicago/Turabian StyleKline, Olivia, Ngoc T. Phan, Mitzy F. Porras, Joshua Chavana, Coleman Z. Little, Lilia Stemet, Roshani S. Acharya, David J. Biddinger, Gadi V. P. Reddy, Edwin G. Rajotte, and et al. 2023. "Biology, Genetic Diversity, and Conservation of Wild Bees in Tree Fruit Orchards" Biology 12, no. 1: 31. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology12010031