Next Article in Journal
Time-Dependent Changes of Laboratory Parameters as Independent Predictors of All-Cause Mortality in COVID-19 Patients
Next Article in Special Issue
Does Heavy-Resistance Training Improve Mobility and Perception of Quality of Life in Older Women?
Previous Article in Journal / Special Issue
Reliability and Validity of the Athletic Shoulder (ASH) Test Performed Using Portable Isometric-Based Strength Training Device
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Biology
Volume 11
Issue 4
10.3390/biology11040579
biology-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Aerobic Dance on an Air Dissipation Platform Improves Cardiorespiratory, Muscular and Cellular Fitness in the Overweight and Obese Elderly

by
Alessandra Moreira-Reis
1,
José Luis Maté-Muñoz
2,
Juan Hernández-Lougedo
3,
Sergio Vilches-Sáez
1,
Marta Benet
4,
Pablo García-Fernández
2,5,
Eulogio Pleguezuelos
6,
Teresa Carbonell
1,
Norma Alva
1 and
Manuel Vicente Garnacho-Castaño
4,*
1
Department of Cell Biology, Physiology and Immunology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
2
Department of Radiology, Rehabilitation and Physiotherapy, Complutense University of Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
3
Laboratory of Biomechanics and Exercise Physiology, Department of Physical Activity and Sports Science, Alfonso X El Sabio University, 28691 Madrid, Spain
4
Campus Docent Sant Joan de Déu, University of Barcelona, 08034 Barcelona, Spain
5
IdISSC, Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria del Hospital Clínico San Carlos, 28040 Madrid, Spain
6
Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation Department, Hospital de Mataró, 08304 Barcelona, Spain
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Biology 2022, 11(4), 579; https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11040579
Submission received: 13 March 2022 / Revised: 7 April 2022 / Accepted: 7 April 2022 / Published: 11 April 2022
(This article belongs to the Special Issue New Frontiers of Sport, Exercise and Physical Activity for Health and Human Performance)
Browse Figures
Versions Notes

Abstract

:

Simple Summary

Aerobic dance is considered a viable strategy to prevent the effects of aging, mainly in obese and overweight elderly people. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of aerobic dance on an air dissipation platform (ADP) on body composition, oxidative stress and muscular and cardiorespiratory fitness in 32 elderly adults (67.1 ± 3.6) who were divided into 3 groups based on body mass index: healthy (HG), overweight (OWG) and obese (OG). Training program of aerobic dance on an ADP was carried out twice a week for 12 weeks at an intensity of 6–8 on the scale of subjective perception exertion (Borg Scale, CR-10). There was a significant decrease in malondialdehyde concentrations in all experimental groups. OWG and OG significantly improved their peak oxygen uptake. An interaction effect was observed in vertical flight height and power output, during the jump test. HG increased the vertical jump height, and HG and OG improved the power output of the lower extremities. In conclusion, aerobic dance on an ADP may be an effective alternative to lose weight, prevent oxidative stress and improve cardiorespiratory fitness in obese and overweight elderly people.

Abstract

Background: Obesity is a global health problem associated with a high number of comorbidities that decrease functional capacity, especially in elderly people. Aerobic dance is considered a viable strategy to prevent the effects of aging, mainly in obese and overweight elderly people. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of aerobic dance on an air dissipation platform (ADP) on body composition, oxidative stress and muscular and cardiorespiratory fitness in elderly people. Methods: In total, 32 elderly adults (67.1 ± 3.6) were divided into 3 groups based on body mass index: healthy (HG), overweight (OWG) and obese (OG). Training program of aerobic dance on an ADP was carried out twice a week for 12 weeks. Results: OWG (p = 0.016) and OG decreased their weight (p < 0.001). There was a significant decrease in malondialdehyde concentrations in all experimental groups (p < 0.05). OWG and OG significantly improved their peak oxygen uptake (p < 0.01). HG increased the vertical jump height (p < 0.05), and HG and OG improved the power output of the lower extremities (p < 0.05). Conclusions: The aerobic dance on an ADP may be an effective alternative to lose weight, prevent oxidative stress and improve cardiorespiratory fitness in obese and overweight elderly people.

1. Introduction

Obesity is a global health problem associated with a high number of comorbidities that affect quality of life and decrease functional capacity, especially in elderly people. Globally, the prevalence of obesity in adults increased from 6.4% to 14.9% in women and from 3.2% to 10.8% in men between 1975 and 2014 [1]. Population studies have shown the relationship between a body mass index (BMI) higher than 25 kg/m2 (especially a BMI ≥ 30 kg/m2) and greater functional impairment [2,3]. In elderly people, BMI ≥ 25 kg/m2 is related to chronic diseases, metabolic syndrome, diabetes [4], frailty [5] and increased mortality [5,6].
At the cellular level, increased concentrations of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species (RONS), combined with the reduction in endogenous antioxidants are common features for both, the aging process and obesity, increasing oxidative stress [7,8,9]. The imbalance between the antioxidant systems and free radical overproduction leads to cell oxidative damage affecting tissue components such as lipids, proteins or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules [10].
Obesity leads to an increase in adipose tissue, triggering the release and storage of lipids in the skeletal muscle. These intramuscular lipids and their derivatives induce a mitochondrial dysfunction characterized by alterations in β-oxidation capacity, therefore, increasing oxidative stress (ROS) and impairing metabolic function [11]. The main products of lipid peroxidation are lipid hydroperoxides where malondialdehyde (MDA) is commonly formed as a secondary by product. It has been described that lipid peroxidation is greater in skeletal muscle mass in obese adults [12]. Several studies have shown that sarcopenia, high BMI and increased MDA concentrations are all parameters [13,14,15] related to an augmented risk of cardiovascular diseases [16,17] and incidence of atherosclerotic processes involving circulating lipoproteins [10].
Countless studies point to regular physical activity as one of the most beneficial resources for delaying the physiological deterioration induced by aging and obesity [18,19,20]. Specifically, aerobic dance (AD) is one of the most practiced aerobic activities in the world, mainly in senior centers [21]. AD is characterized by a sequence of impact movements choreographed to the rhythm of the music. Several studies have proposed that AD improves muscular strength, cardiorespiratory endurance, body agility, flexibility [22,23], lower body function [24] and locomotion/agility and balance, thus attenuating risks of falling in elderly adults [25]. AD exercise programs have been shown to reduce body weight, fat mass and cardiovascular disease risks in overweight and obese women [26], as well as improve maximal oxygen uptake (VO2), decrease MDA levels and enhance antioxidant capacity [27]. From a psychological perspective, AD has been confirmed to have a positive effect on cognition in older people [28].
Exercise programs for the elderly that include unstable surfaces have been proposed to induce improvements in physical capabilities, such as muscle strength, power and balance [29,30], functional mobility, gait performance [19] and appear to be a good alternative to reduce the impact on joints [31]. Unstable surfaces have been shown to be a suitable alternative for improving cardiorespiratory fitness and producing positive changes in body composition in overweight women [32]. In addition, several studies have shown that exercise performed on unstable surfaces can be more intense compared to exercise on the ground [33,34,35].
Recently, our research group incorporated an air dissipation platform (ADP) in AD sessions. The ADP contains an area that rests on an elastomer with holes through which air flows. The amount of air that remains in the area produces rebound damping, reducing impacts during exercise and increasing instability. In a previous study, we demonstrated that an AD session on an ADP increased metabolic and cardiorespiratory responses compared to a hard surface, maintaining the perception of greater effort and muscle fatigue. [35]. We suggested that an AD exercise program on an ADP carried out 3 d·wk−1 for 75 min·wk−1 or 20 min·d−1 could maintain or improve metabolic and cardiorespiratory fitness, according to the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM) guidelines [18].
To our knowledge, there are no studies assessing the effects of AD on an ADP on oxidative stress and cardiorespiratory and muscular function in obese or overweight older people. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the chronic effects of an exercise program of AD performed in an ADP on cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness and oxidative stress in overweight and obese older people.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Subsection

The exercise program was explained in detail to the participants in the preliminary meeting. In the first session, all subjects were rigorously evaluated for comorbidities and diseases and their medical history was analyzed. In addition, their level of physical activity was checked up using an international physical activity questionnaire (IPAQ-E) for measurement of physical activity in people over 65 years of age [36].
The AD program in an ADP lasted 12 weeks. Before (pre-test) and after (post-test) the AD program, the same tests were carried out by the same evaluators to determine the effects of the exercise program in an ADP on body composition, oxidative stress and cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness. Previously, a familiarization session was performed of the muscular and cardiorespiratory fitness tests. The participants did not perform any physical effort for 48 h before the tests. The tests and the order of the tests were defined as follows (Figure 1): 1st assessment of body composition, 2nd capillary blood collection, 3rd assessment of muscular fitness (lower extremity strength, upper extremity strength, jump test), 4th assessment of agility and dynamic balance (8 foot UP & Go test) and 5th assessment of cardiorespiratory fitness (YMCA test). A 5 min rest was established between each test.

2.2. Participants

Participants of this study were members of the centers for the elderly in the community of Madrid. In total, 58 healthy older adults between 60 and 78 years old were recruited. Finally, 32 participants (age = 67.1 ± 3.6 years; weight = 67.5 ± 16.6 kg; height = 155.4 ± 6.7 cm; BMI = 27.9 ± 6.2 kg·m2–1) were included in this study. In total, 28 women and 4 men were assigned to 3 groups based on BMI according to established guidelines by the World Health Organization [37]: eutrophic (18.5–24.9 kg m2), overweight (25–29.9 kg/m2) and obese (≥30 kg/m2): healthy group (HG, n = 10; men, n = 1), overweight group (OWG, n = 10; men, n = 2) and obese group (OG, n = 12; men, n = 1).
Participants with orthopedic prostheses or implanted pacemaker, cardiovascular neurological, musculoskeletal, infectious and oncological diseases were excluded from the study. In addition, all participants who missed 10% of the exercise sessions in the ADP were excluded from the final data analysis. The participants were informed of all experimental procedures and each participant provided written informed consent to participate in the study. This investigation was approved by the Institutional Review Board (Identification number: 13/2018) according to the principles and policies of the Declaration of Helsinki.

2.3. Body Composition

Body composition was calculated by bioimpedance using the electric Bioimpedance model scale (InBody 3.0, Biospace, Seoul, Korea). The variables assessed were weight, body fat (BF), body fat percentage (% BF), fat-free mass (FFM) and lean mass (LM) [38]. Height was measured with a standard stadiometer, and BMI was calculated as weight (kg)/height (m2).

2.4. Oxidative Stress

Blood samples for oxidative stress determination were collected by finger pricking. After puncture, blood was immediately collected in EDTA-K2 Microvette tubes (SAR-STEDT, Nümbrecht, Germany). The tubes were centrifuged at 600× g for 15 min (4 °C). To avoid peroxidation amplification, butylated hydroxytoluene (antioxidant) and the iron chelator EDTA were added to fresh plasma samples. Then, plasma was stored at −80 °C until assessment of MDA as determined by thiobarbituric acid-reactive substance concentrations (TBARS), a product of lipid peroxidation, following Yagi’s technique with minor modification [39]. Results were expressed in uM compared to a standard curve prepared with MDA.

2.5. Muscular Fitness

After a 5 min general warm-up (movements, joint mobility, push-ups, jumps, etc.), the participants began the assessment of muscle fitness.

2.5.1. Countermovement Jump

The countermovement jump (CMJ) was used to measure the vertical flight height and the power output of the lower extremities on a contact platform (ChronoJump, Bosco System, Barcelona, Spain). Three CMJs were performed at the participant’s maximum capacity with a 30 s rest between each jump. The mean values of height and mean power output of the three jumps were used in the subsequent analyses [40].

2.5.2. Arm Curl Test

Sitting, at the signal of the evaluator, the participant performed an elbow flexion–extension (bicep flexion) with both limbs throughout the range of motion as many times as possible for 30 s. The test started with the dominant arm and ended with the non-dominant. A single series was performed and 1 min rest was established between each attempt. A 2 kg dumbbell was used for women and 4 kg for men [41].

2.5.3. Agility and Dynamic Balance

Agility and dynamic balance were assessed using the 8 foot UP & Go test. At the investigator’s signal, the participant should get up from the chair and walk 8 feet (2.44 m), turn around and sit back down. Two attempts were executed and the shortest time of the two attempts was recorded [42]. A 3 min rest was applied between attempts.

2.6. Cardiorespiratory Fitness

The cardiorespiratory fitness was assessed using the YMCA step test. At a 30 cm high stride, participants performed 24 steps per minute at a rate of 96 bits per minute for 3 min [43]. Heart rate values were recorded using a polar heart rate monitor (RS-800CX, Polar Electro OY; Kempele, Finland) during the exercise and 1 min after exercise (1 min HBC). Peak oxygen consumption was estimated according to the guidelines established in a previous study by Beutner et al., who established a linear regression model (YMCA model) taking into account age, sex and 1 min HBC. The regression coefficients for each of the variables were: −0.15 for 1 min HBC, −4.2 for the gender variable, −0.38 for the age variable and 78.2 as a constant [44].

2.7. Exercise Program

All sessions were led by the same instructor. Two AD classes on an ADP were conducted per week for 12 weeks (Appendix A, Figure A1). The duration of the classes was 45 min divided into 10 min of warm-up, 30 min of the main part and 5 min of cool down. The AD class consisted of global and combined lower and upper body exercises such as jumps with both feet, knee raises, flexion with elbow extension, kick with shoulder abduction, squats, leg flexion and extension, jumping jacks, scissors, calisthenics, plyometrics etc. The music that accompanied the exercises was selected to mark the right time of transition between the different types of exercise. The exercise changes were performed every 16 s and the intensity of the class was controlled by the Borg rating of perceived exertion (RPE, Borg Scale CR-10) [45] following the guidelines established in previous studies [46]. Upper body exercises consisted of performing elbow flexion–extensions, shoulder abductions–adductions and shoulder flexion–extension with dumbbells and elastic bands simultaneously while dancing to the rhythm of the music. The participants had to perform a high number of repetitions (≈15 repetitions) with light resistance. After 16 s, the muscle group was changed to another upper extremity exercise (Table 1).
In addition to performing all the exercises on the platform, materials such as dumbbells, rubber bands, maracas, sticks and pikes were also used (Appendix A, Figure A2).

2.8. Statistical Analysis

The Shapiro–Wilk test was used to check the normal distribution of the data, which are reported as means and standard deviation (SD), means and confidence intervals (95% CI). To identify significant differences between the HG, OWG and OG, a general linear model with a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) for repeated measures was applied (group × time). When appropriate, a post hoc Bonferroni adjustment was implemented for multiple comparisons. The partial eta-squared (ηp2) was computed to determine the magnitude of the response to exercise program. The statistical power (SP) was also calculated. All statistical tests were performed using the software package SPSS version 23.0 for Apple Macintosh (SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). Significance was set at p < 0.05.

3. Results

3.1. Body Composition

The data related to body composition are shown in Table 2.

3.2. Oxidative Stress

In MDA, an interaction effect (group × time) and a time effect (p = 0.032, ES = 0.25, SP = 0.66; p < 0.001, ES = 0.70, SP = 1.00, respectively) were verified; however, a group effect was not detected (p > 0.05). The Bonferroni post hoc determined a significant decrease in MDA concentrations in the three experimental groups after the training program (p < 0.05) (Figure 2).

3.3. Cardiorespiratory Fitness

The data related to cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness are shown in Table 3.
Regarding the estimated VO2peak, an interaction effect (group × time) (p = 0.008) was observed. The Bonferroni test determined that the OWG and OG significantly improved their VO2peak (p = 0.005 and p = 0.002, respectively). No interaction effect (group × time) was detected in the strength of the arms and in the 8 foot UP & Go test (p > 0.05). However, an interaction effect (group × time) was observed in vertical flight height (p = 0.001) and power output (p = 0.044) during the jump test. Bonferroni test determined that only HG increased the vertical jump height after training program (p < 0.05). Furthermore, the power output of lower limbs was improved in HG and OG after the training program (p < 0.05).

4. Discussion

The main finding of this study was that a 12-week AD exercise program on an ADP successfully reduced body weight, decreased lipid peroxidation (MDA) and increased VO2peak in obese and overweight elderly. Moreover, the OG showed an improvement in balance and agility and also in the strength of both arms over time (pre vs. post). One of the main objectives of an exercise program in obese and overweight people is to lose weight and gain lean mass. Our results indicated that only OWG and OG decreased their weight after the intervention program while HG maintained weight and lean mass. It should be noted that weight loss in elderly may have an effect on reducing lean mass, which could increase the risk of sarcopenia [3,47]. However, no significant changes in lean mass in OWG and OG were detected after the AD program; although aerobic exercise compared to other types of exercise has less effect on lean mass [47,48]. It has been evidenced that weight loss and maintenance of lean mass decrease the risk of developing metabolic diseases, reducing skeletal muscle deterioration and disability, hospitalizations and early mortality [49]. An exercise program of two sessions per week of AD in an ADP for at least 12 weeks could be a sufficient stimulus to reduce weight and maintain lean mass, reducing the risk of metabolic diseases and the deterioration of muscle mass in obese and overweight older people. More studies are needed to corroborate such claims. The role of oxidative stress in the aging process appears mainly related to the decrease in antioxidant systems, and the loss of functionality of other detoxifying systems, causing the accumulation of oxidized lipids, proteins or DNA molecules, negatively impacts on the homeostatic cellular mechanisms [7,8,9].
The level of lipid peroxidation was similar in all the experimental groups before starting the exercise program. At the end of the AD program, the MDA levels were significantly attenuated. Although MDA levels have not been investigated after an exercise program on an ADP, the results were similar to several studies in which other exercise programs were applied [27,50]. Yu et al. showed that aerobic exercise such as running, cycling and dancing induced lower MDA levels and protective effects against oxidative stress damage in older people [50]. Similar findings were found in obese elderly women after performing an aerobic exercise program for 12 months at an intensity of 60–75% of maximum HR. The authors concluded that aerobic exercise decreases oxidative stress when accompanied by gains in cardiorespiratory fitness [51]. From a physiological perspective, the decrease in oxidative stress may be related to an improvement in mitochondrial function. Mitochondrial dysfunction is one of the characteristics of the aging process inducing an elevated emission of ROS and the activation of apoptotic pathways [52]. It seems that exercise programs could reduce oxidative stress in the elderly and obese people, depending on the type of exercise and the intensity established [53,54]. Previous studies found different levels of lipid peroxidation and TBARS in obese individuals at several types of exercise and intensities [55,56,57].
One of the purposes of this study was to be able to control exercise intensity on an ADP. Our previous findings demonstrated that exercise on an ADP stimulates a greater cardiorespiratory and metabolic response compared to exercise on a hard surface [35]. The exercise intensity of the sessions was controlled using the Borg scale of 0 to 10. The instructor regularly reported the ranges and intensity changes, following the aforementioned scale, which allowed the control of intensity levels within the ranges of moderate to vigorous intensity (RPE 5 to 8), ensuring that the subjects were not exposed to strenuous efforts [46]. Studies have shown to improve the cardiorespiratory fitness by controlling exercise intensity with RPE [46,58]. OWG and OG increased their VO2peak at the prescribed intensities, demonstrating the efficacy of the exercise program on an ADP. In contrast, HG did not improve their VO2peak, suggesting that the implemented exercise program (2 sessions per week) could be sufficient stimulus to improve VO2peak in overweight and obese older people, but not for older people with a normal weight. Improvements in VO2peak are of crucial relevance to the health of obese and overweight people. Several studies have shown that an increase of 1 MET (3.5 mL/kg/min O2) in exercise capacity reduced the adjusted risk for mortality in 13% [59] and reduces the risk of mortality or suffering a cardiovascular event by 13–15% [60]. OWG and OG increased ~1.5 mL/kg/min O2 similar to other AD studies using a mini trampoline [27,61]. Cugusi et al. found a significant increase in VO2max (1.5 mL/kg/min, from 15.4 to 16.9 mL/kg/min,) in overweight women after a 12-week exercise program on a mini trampoline [32].
Van Schoor et al. assumed that the higher physiological demands induced by the mini trampoline could be due to the constant rebounding and instability produced by an elastic surface [61]. This higher physiological demand would imply a greater effort to perform the exercise and maintain balance on an ADP. In addition, soft surfaces can reduce the risk of high-impact joint injuries by improving balance and strength in older people [29,30], especially in obese and overweight people. This suggestion could account for, at least in part, the improvements in agility and balance observed in obese older people. However, the exercise program on an ADP was not adequate stimulus to significantly improve agility and balance in the OWG and HG. Nonetheless, the results of the 8 foot UP & Go test can be considered normal [62]. Contrary to what might be expected, the rebound effect produced by ADP did not improve jumping ability in overweight and obese people despite including plyometric in the AD program. However, HG improved vertical jump ability by demonstrating increased lower extremity strength, consistent with other studies where jump training appears to be more effective in non-obese older people [63].
A twice-weekly AD program on an ADP preserved explosive strength levels in the lower extremities in overweight and obese older people. Preventing loss of muscle strength, as well as cardiorespiratory fitness, is crucial for the elderly to maintain their functional ability to perform activities of daily living independently [59,64,65]. Muscle mass declines by roughly 3–8% per decade after the age of 30 and increases even more after the age of 60 [66,67]; this gradual decrease in muscle mass is accompanied by a simultaneous reduction in strength [68], in muscle performance and a decrease in cardiorespiratory fitness [59,64,69,70]. In addition, as a preventive measure, this type of training with instabilities could improve neuro-muscular and musculoskeletal functions and reduce the risk of falls, using exercises for strength, postural balance, muscle coordination, joint range of motion and spatial orientation with a multi-component approach [29,30].
This study presents some limitations. Some participants did not attend the posttest, which significantly reduced the sample size. The initial sample of 58 participants was reduced to 32 participants at the end of study. Data from participants who failed to complete more than two AD sessions were not considered for the final statistical analysis [46] but they continued to perform the exercise program.

5. Conclusions

In conclusion, a training program of aerobic exercise on an ADP should be considered a viable strategy to positively regulate cardiorespiratory and muscular adaptations and to ameliorate the effects of oxidative stress in obese and overweight older people.

Author Contributions

Conceived and designed the experiments A.M.-R. and M.V.G.-C.; performed the experiments, A.M.-R., J.L.M.-M., J.H.-L., T.C., N.A., M.B., S.V.-S., P.G.-F. and M.V.G.-C.; analyzed the data, A.M.-R., S.V.-S. and M.V.G.-C.; contributed reagents/materials/analysis tools A.M.-R., E.P., J.L.M.-M., J.H.-L., M.B., T.C., N.A., S.V.-S. and M.V.G.-C.; wrote the paper. A.M.-R., N.A. and M.V.G.-C. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

The study protocol received approval from the ethics committee of the university (13/2018) and adhered to the tenets of the Declaration of Helsinki.

Informed Consent Statement

Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

We thank the elderly people who participated in the study for all their collaboration.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Appendix A

Biology 11 00579 g0a1 550
Figure A1. Session of ADP with the elderly.
Figure A1. Session of ADP with the elderly.
Biology 11 00579 g0a1
Biology 11 00579 g0a2 550
Figure A2. The air dissipation platform (ADP), materials such as dumbbells, elastic bands, maracas, sticks and paddles used in the sessions.
Figure A2. The air dissipation platform (ADP), materials such as dumbbells, elastic bands, maracas, sticks and paddles used in the sessions.
Biology 11 00579 g0a2

References

  1. Blüher, M. Obesity: Global epidemiology and pathogenesis. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2019, 15, 288–298. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  2. Flegal, K.M.; Graubard, B.I.; Williamson, D.F.; Gail, M.H. Excess deaths associated with underweight, overweight, and obesity. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 2005, 293, 1861–1867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  3. Batsis, J.A.; Villareal, D.T. Sarcopenic obesity in older adults: Aetiology, epidemiology and treatment strategies. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2018, 14, 513–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  4. Jura, M.; Kozak, L.P. Obesity and related consequences to ageing. Age 2016, 38, 23. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  5. Freedman, D.M.; Ron, E.; Ballard-Barbash, R.; Linet, M.S. Body mass index and all-cause mortality in a nationwide US cohort. Int. J. Obes. 2006, 30, 822–829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  6. Adams, K.F.; Schatzkin, A.; Harris, T.B.; Kipnis, V.; Mouw, T.; Ballard-Barbash, R.; Hollenbeck, A.; Leitzmann, M.F. Overweight, obesity, and mortality in a large prospective cohort of persons 50 to 71 years old. N. Engl. J. Med. 2006, 355, 763–778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Sánchez-Flores, M.; Marcos-Pérez, D.; Costa, S.; Teixeira, J.P.; Bonassi, S.; Pásaro, E.; Laffon, B.; Valdiglesias, V. Oxidative stress, genomic features and DNA repair in frail elderly: A systematic review. Ageing Res. Rev. 2017, 37, 1–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  8. Powers, S.K.; Radak, Z.; Ji, L.L. Exercise-induced oxidative stress: Past, present and future. J. Physiol. 2016, 594, 5081–5092. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Mergener, M.; Martins, M.R.; Antunes, M.V.; da Silva, C.C.; Lazzaretti, C.; Fontanive, T.O.; Suyenaga, E.S.; Ardenghi, P.G.; Maluf, S.W.; Gamaro, D. Oxidative stress and DNA damage in older adults that do exercises regularly. Clin. Biochem. 2009, 42, 1648–1653. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Stocker, R.; Keaney, J.F. Role of oxidative modifications in atherosclerosis. Physiol. Rev. 2004, 84, 1381–1478. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Kalinkovich, A.; Livshits, G. Sarcopenic obesity or obese sarcopenia: A cross talk between age-associated adipose tissue and skeletal muscle inflammation as a main mechanism of the pathogenesis. Ageing Res. Rev. 2017, 35, 200–221. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  12. Berggren, J.R.; Boyle, K.E.; Chapman, W.H.; Houmard, J.A. Skeletal muscle lipid oxidation and obesity: Influence of weight loss and exercise. Am. J. Physiol. Endocrinol. Metab. 2008, 294, E726–E732. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  13. Mutlu-Türkoǧlu, Ü.; Öztezcan, S.; Telci, A.; Orhan, Y.; Ayka-Toker, G.; Sivas, A.; Uysal, M. An increase in lipoprotein oxidation and endogenous lipid peroxides in serum of obese women. Clin. Exp. Med. 2003, 2, 171–174. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Olusi, S.O. Obesity is an independent risk factor for plasma lipid peroxidation and depletion of erythrocyte cytoprotectic enzymes in humans. Int. J. Obes. 2002, 26, 1159–1164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  15. Van Gaal, L.F.; Vertommen, J.; De Leeuw, I.H. The in vitro oxidizability of lipoprotein particles in obese and non-obese subjects. Atherosclerosis 1998, 137, S39–S44. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Bellanti, F.; Romano, A.D.; Lo Buglio, A.; Castriotta, V.; Guglielmi, G.; Greco, A.; Serviddio, G.; Vendemiale, G. Oxidative stress is increased in sarcopenia and associated with cardiovascular disease risk in sarcopenic obesity. Maturitas 2018, 109, 6–12. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Mezzetti, A.; Zuliani, G.; Romano, F.; Costantini, F.; Pierdomenico, S.D.; Cuccurullo, F.; Fellin, R. Vitamin E and Lipid Peroxide Plasma Levels Predict the Risk of Cardiovascular Events in a Group of Healthy Very Old People. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2001, 49, 533–537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Garber, C.E.; Blissmer, B.; Deschenes, M.R.; Franklin, B.A.; Lamonte, M.J.; Lee, I.M.; Nieman, D.C.; Swain, D.P. Quantity and quality of exercise for developing and maintaining cardiorespiratory, musculoskeletal, and neuromotor fitness in apparently healthy adults. Med. Sci. Sport Exerc. 2011, 43, 1334–1359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Posch, M.; Schranz, A.; Lener, M.; Tecklenburg, K.; Burtscher, M.; Ruedl, G.; Niedermeier, M.; Wlaschek, W. Effectiveness of a mini-trampoline training program on balance and functional mobility, gait performance, strength, fear of falling and bone mineral density in older women with osteopenia. Clin. Interv. Aging 2019, 14, 2281–2293. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  20. Mathus-Vliegen, E.M. Obesity Management Task Force of the European Association for the Study of Obesity. Prevalence, pathophysiology, health consequences and treatment options of obesity in the elderly: A guideline. Obes. Facts 2012, 5, 460–483. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Fan, J.X.; Kowaleski-Jones, L.; Wen, M. Walking or dancing: Patterns of physical activity by cross-sectional age among U.S. women. J. Aging Health 2013, 25, 1182–1203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  22. Hopkins, D.R.; Murrah, B.; Hoeger, W.W.; Rhodes, R.C. Effect of low-impact aerobic dance on the functional fitness of elderly women. Gerontologist 1990, 30, 189–192. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  23. Keogh, J.W.L.; Kilding, A.; Pidgeon, P.; Ashley, L.; Gillis, D. Physical benefits of dancing for healthy older adults: A review. J. Aging Phys. Act. 2009, 17, 479–500. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  24. Holmerová, I.; Machácová, K.; Vanková, H.; Veleta, P.; Jurasková, B.; Hrnciariková, D.; Volicer, L.; Andel, R. Effect of the Exercise Dance for Seniors (EXDASE) program on lower-body functioning among institutionalized older adults. J. Aging Health 2010, 22, 106–119. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  25. Shigematsu, R.; Chang, M.; Yabushita, N.; Sakai, T.; Nakagaichi, M.; Nho, H.; Tanaka, K. Dance-based aerobic exercise may improve indices of falling risk in older women. Age Ageing 2002, 31, 261–266. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  26. Said, M.; Lamya, N.; Olfa, N.; Hamda, M. Effects of high-impact aerobics vs. low-impact aerobics and strength training in overweight and obese women. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 2017, 57, 278–288. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Leelarungrayub, D.; Saidee, K.; Pothongsunun, P.; Pratanaphon, S.; Yankai, A.; Bloomer, R.J. Six weeks of aerobic dance exercise improves blood oxidative stress status and increases interleukin-2 in previously sedentary women. J. Bodyw. Mov. Ther. 2011, 15, 355–362. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Kimura, K.; Hozumi, N. Investigating the acute effect of an aerobic dance exercise program on neuro-cognitive function in the elderly. Psychol. Sport Exerc. 2012, 13, 623–629. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Eckardt, N. Lower-extremity resistance training on unstable surfaces improves proxies of muscle strength, power and balance in healthy older adults: A randomised control trial. BMC Geriatr. 2016, 16, 191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  30. Amat, A.M.; Contreras, F.H.; Vega, R.L.; Martínez, I.C.; Alvarez, P.J.; López, E.M. Effects of 12-week proprioception training program on postural stability, gait, and balance in older adults. J. Strength Cond. Res. 2013, 27, 2180–2188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Sukkeaw, W.; Kritpet, T.; Bunyaratavej, N. A Comparison between the effects of aerobic dance training on mini-trampoline and hard wooden surface on bone resorption, health-related physical fitness, balance, and foot plantar pressure in Thai working women. J. Med. Assoc. Thail. 2015, 98, S58–S64. [Google Scholar]
  32. Cugusi, L.; Manca, A.; Serpe, R.; Romita, G.; Bergamin, M.; Cadeddu, C.; Solla, P.; Mercuro, G. Effects of a mini-trampoline rebounding exercise program on functional parameters, body composition and quality of life in overweight women. J. Sports Med. Phys. Fit. 2018, 58, 287–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  33. Maté-Muñoz, J.L.; Moreira-Reis, A.; de Subijana, C.L.; Rodríguez-Rodríguez, B.; Sacristán-Rubio, A.; Ruiz-Solano, P.; Garnacho-Castaño, M.V. Respuestas cardiorrespiratorias y metabólicas al ejercicio realizado sobre una plataforma de disipación de aire. Apunt Med. Esport 2014, 48, 53–58. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  34. Rodrigues, G.A.A.; Rodrigues, P.C.; da Silva, F.F.; Nakamura, P.M.; Higino, W.P.; de Souza, R.A. Mini-trampoline enhances cardiovascular responses during a stationary running exergame in adults. Biol. Sport 2018, 35, 335–342. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Moreira-Reis, A.; Maté-Muñoz, J.L.; Lougedo, J.H.; García-Fernández, P.; Pleguezuelos-Cobo, E.; Carbonell, T.; Alva, N.; Garnacho-Castaño, M.V. Cardiorespiratory, metabolic and muscular responses during a video-recorded aerobic dance session on an air dissipation platform. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 9511. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. Castañeda, F.J.R.; Aznar, C.T.A.; Baquero, C.M. Medición de la actividad física en personas mayores de 65 años mediantes el IPAQ-E: Validez de contenido, fiabilidad y factores asociados. Rev. Esp. Salud Pública 2017, 91, e1–e12. [Google Scholar]
  37. Weir, C.B.; Jan, A. BMI classification percentile and cut off points. In StatPearls Publishing; StatPearls Publishing: Treasure Island, FL, USA, 2022. [Google Scholar]
  38. Bedogni, G.; Malavolti, M.; Severi, S.; Poli, M.; Mussi, C.; Fantuzzi, A.L.; Battistini, N. Accuracy of an eight-point tactile-electrode impedance method in the assessment of total body water. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 2002, 56, 1143–1148. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  39. Yagi, K. Assay for blood plasma or serum. Methods Enzymol. 1984, 105, 328–331. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
  40. Cabral, R.M.C.; Silva, I.O.; Medeiros, A.R.; Claudino, J.G.; Reyes, P.J.; Boullosa, D.A. The validity and reliability of the “my Jump App” for measuring jump height of the elderly. PeerJ 2018, 6, e5804. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  41. Pedrero-Chamizo, R.; Albers, U.; Palacios, G.; Pietrzik, K.; Meléndez, A.; González-Gross, M. Health Risk, Functional Markers and Cognitive Status in Institutionalized Older Adults: A Longitudinal Study. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2020, 17, 7303. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Rikli, R.E.; Jones, C.J. Development and validation of criterion-referenced clinically relevant fitness standards for maintaining physical independence in later years. Gerontologist 2013, 53, 255–267. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  43. Golding, L. YMCA Fitness Testing and Assessment Manual, 4th ed.; Human Kinetics: Champaign, IL, USA, 2000; pp. 155–157. [Google Scholar]
  44. Beutner, F.; Ubrich, R.; Zachariae, S.; Engel, C.; Sandri, M.; Teren, A.; Gielen, S. Validation of a brief step-test protocol for estimation of peak oxygen uptake. Eur. J. Prev. Cardiol. 2015, 22, 503–512. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  45. Borg, G. Perceived exertion: A note on “history” and methods. Med. Sci. Sports 1973, 5, 90–93. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Garnacho-Castaño, M.V.; Domínguez, R.; Muñoz-González, A.; Ruano, R.F.; Serra-Payá, N.S.; Maté-Muñoz, J.L. Exercise Prescription Using the Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion to Improve Fitness. Int. J. Sports Med. 2018, 39, 115–123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Colleluori, G.; Aguirre, L.; Phadnis, U.; Fowler, K.; Armamento-Villareal, R.; Sun, Z.; Brunetti, L.; Park, J.H.; Kaipparettu, B.A.; Putluri, N.; et al. Aerobic plus resistance exercise in obese older adults improves muscle protein synthesis and preserves myocellular quality despite weight loss. Cell Metab. 2019, 30, 261–273.e6. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Beavers, K.M.; Ambrosius, W.T.; Rejeski, W.J.; Burdette, J.H.; Walkup, M.P.; Sheedy, J.L.; Nesbit, B.A.; Gaukstern, J.E.; Nicklas, B.J.; Marsh, A.P. Effect of exercise type during intentional weight loss on body composition in older adults with obesity. Obesity 2017, 25, 1823–1829. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Morgan, P.T.; Smeuninx, B.; Breen, L. Exploring the impact of obesity on skeletal muscle function in older age. Front. Nutr. 2020, 7, 569904. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Yu, Y.; Gao, Q.; Xia, W.; Zhang, L.; Hu, Z.; Wu, X.; Jia, X. Association between physical exercise and biomarkers of oxidative stress among middle-aged and elderly community residents with essential hypertension in China. Biomed Res. Int. 2018, 2018, 4135104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Campbell, P.T.; Gross, M.D.; Potter, J.D.; Schmitz, K.H.; Duggan, C.; McTiernan, A.; Ulrich, C.M. Effect of exercise on oxidative stress: A 12-month randomized, controlled trial. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 2010, 42, 1448–1453. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  52. Distefano, G.; Standley, R.A.; Zhang, X.; Carnero, E.A.; Yi, F.; Cornnell, H.H.; Coen, P.M. Physical activity unveils the relationship between mitochondrial energetics, muscle quality, and physical function in older adults. J. Cachexia Sarcopenia Muscle 2018, 9, 279–294. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  53. Park, J.Y.; Ferrel, R.E.; Park, J.J.; Hagberg, J.M.; Phares, D.A.; Jones, J.M.; Brown, M.D. NADPH oxidase p22phox gene variants are associated with systemic oxidative stress biomarker responses to exercise training. J. Appl. Physiol. 2005, 99, 1905–1911. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  54. Vincent, H.K.; Bourguignon, C.; Vincent, K.R. Resistance training lowers exercise-induced oxidative stress and homocysteine levels in overweight and obese older adults. Obesity 2006, 14, 1921–1930. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Vicent, H.K.; Vincent, K.R.; Bourguignon, C.; Braith, R.W. Obesity and postexercise oxidative stress in older women. Med. Sci. Sport Exerc. 2005, 37, 213–219. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  56. Vincent, H.K.; Bourguignon, C.; Vincent, K.R.; Weltman, A.L.; Bryant, M.; Taylor, A.G. Antioxidant supplementation lowers exercise-induced oxidative stress in young overweight adults. Obesity 2006, 14, 2224–2235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  57. Saiki, S.; Sato, T.; Kohzuki, M.; Kamimoto, M.; Yosida, T. Changes in serum hypoxanthine levels by exercise in obese subjects. Metabolism 2001, 50, 627–630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  58. Ruiz, Y.B.; Vélez, R.R.; Amat, A.M.; González, E.V. Effect of two choreographed fitness group-workouts on the body composition, cardiovascular and metabolic health of sedentary female workers. Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2019, 16, 4986. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  59. Kokkinos, P.; Manolis, A.; Pittaras, A.; Doumas, M.; Giannelou, A.; Panagiotakos, D.B.; Faselis, C.; Narayan, P.; Singh, S.; Myers, J. Exercise capacity and mortality in hypertensive men with and without additional risk factors. Hypertension 2009, 53, 494–499. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  60. Kodama, S.; Saito, K.; Tanaka, S.; Maki, M.; Yachi, Y.; Asumi, M.; Sugawara, A.; Totsuka, K.; Shimano, H.; Ohashi, Y.; et al. Cardiorespiratory fitness as a quantitative predictor of all-cause mortality and cardiovascular events in healthy men and women: A meta-analysis. JAMA 2009, 301, 2024–2035. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  61. van Schoor, N.M.; van der Veen, A.J.; Schaap, L.A.; Smit, T.H.; Lips, P. Biomechanical comparison of hard and soft hip protectors, and the influence of soft tissue. Bone 2006, 39, 401–407. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Ignasiak, Z.; Sebastjan, A.; Kaczorowska, A.; Skrzek, A. Estimation of the risk of the frailty syndrome in the independent-living population of older people. Aging Clin. Exp. Res. 2020, 32, 2233–2240. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Moran, J.; Ramírez-Campillo, R.; Granacher, U. Effects of jumping exercise on muscular power in older adults: A meta-analysis. Sport Med. 2018, 48, 2843–2857. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  64. Laurin, J.L.; Reid, J.J.; Lawrence, M.M.; Miller, B.F. Long-term aerobic exercise preserves muscle mass and function with age. Curr. Opin. Physiol. 2019, 10, 70–74. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Mandsager, K.; Harb, S.; Cremer, P.; Phelan, D.; Nissen, S.E.; Jaber, W. Association of cardiorespiratory fitness with long-term mortality among adults undergoing exercise treadmill testing. JAMA 2018, 1, e183605. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  66. Melton, L.J., 3rd; Khosla, S.; Crowson, C.S.; O’Connor, M.K.; O’Fallon, W.M.; Riggs, B.L. Epidemiology of sarcopenia. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 2000, 48, 625–630. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Holloszy, J.O. The biology of aging. Mayo. Clin. Proc. 2000, 75, S3–S9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Curcio, F.; Ferro, G.; Basile, C.; Liguori, I.; Parrella, P.; Pirozzi, F.; Della-Morte, D.; Gargiulo, G.; Testa, G.; Tocchetti, C.G.; et al. Biomarkers in sarcopenia: A multi-factorial approach. Exp. Gerontol. 2016, 85, 1–8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Clausen, J.S.R.; Marott, J.L.; Holtermann, A.; Gyntelberg, F.; Jensen, M.T. Midlife Cardiorespiratory fitness and the long-term risk of mortality: 46 years of follow-up. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2018, 72, 987–995. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Blair, S.N. Influences of cardiorespiratory fitness and other precursors on cardiovascular disease and all-cause mortality in men and women. JAMA 1996, 276, 205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Figure 1. Protocol test. Abbreviations: BMI = body mass index, CMJ = counter movement jump, CRF = cardiorespiratory fitness and MDA = malondialdehyde. The images were selected from the internet (20 September 2021). http://fonamentsgrausuperiordanigoncalves.blogspot.com/p/senior-fitness-test.html; https://www.klipartz.com/es/sticker-png-ouoxs; https://www.makeoverfitness.com/leg-exercise-charts/7906-printable-leg-exercise-chart-for-women; https://mundoentrenamiento.com/salto-vertical-como-aumentarlo/; https://www.pngwing.com; https://www.shutterstock.com/es/search/chemistry+sketches; https://sp.depositphotos.com/vector-images/consentimiento-informado.html.
Biology 11 00579 g001
Biology 11 00579 g002 550
Figure 2. Lipid peroxidation, measured as TBARS concentrations. Abbreviations used: HG = healthy group; MDA = malondialdehyde; OG = obesity group; OWG = overweight group. ★ Significant differences compared to posttest (p < 0.001 in HG; p < 0.001 in OWG; p = 0.024 in OG).
Figure 2. Lipid peroxidation, measured as TBARS concentrations. Abbreviations used: HG = healthy group; MDA = malondialdehyde; OG = obesity group; OWG = overweight group. ★ Significant differences compared to posttest (p < 0.001 in HG; p < 0.001 in OWG; p = 0.024 in OG).
Biology 11 00579 g002
Table
Table 1. Summary of characteristics and expected RPE of dance session performed on an air dissipation platform.
Table 1. Summary of characteristics and expected RPE of dance session performed on an air dissipation platform.
Variable/Weeks1–34–89–12
Sessions for week222
Exercise intensitymoderateintensityvigorous
Expected RPE (1–10)5–66–77–8
Table
Table 2. Body composition variable.
Table 2. Body composition variable.
AssessmentHGOWGOGP1 for interaction/ES/SPP2 for time/ES/SPP3 for group/ES/SP
Participants (n) 101012
Weight (kg)Pre †58.20 (4.21)68.29 (5.70)80.16 (9.94)0.028 0.001 <0.001
Post †58.22 (3.57)67.51 (5.61) *78.98 (9.54) *0.23/0.680.33/0.950.62/1.00
Body mass index (kg·m−2)Pre †24.23 (1.24)28.83 (1.13)32.17 (1.93)0.1210.002 <0.001
Post †24.16 (0.99)28.59 (0.87)31.71 (1.95) *0.14/0.420.30/0.920.84/1.00
Fat Mass (kg)Pre ¥22.02 (3.28)26.22 (2.51)31.65 (4.54)0.7320.078<0.001
Post ¥21.72 (2.69)25.46 (2.17)31.30 (4.22)0.02/0.090.11/0.420.61/1.00
Body Fat (%)Pre36.79 (4.29)38.56 (3.43)40.78 (6.32)0.9010.038 0.180
Post36.23 (3.78)37.74 (3.56)40.25 (5.98)0.01/0.060.15/0.560.12/0.35
Fat-Free Mass (kg)Pre37.91 (3.91) β41.78 (5.09)46.72 (9.99)0.9710.0950.030
Post38.20 (3.83) β42.15 (5.31)47.13 (9.76)0.00/0.050.10/0.390.23/0.67
Lean Mass (kg)Pre 20.91 (2.70) β22.92 (3.01)25.81 (6.16)0.4010.9600.041
Post20.57 (2.33) β23.02 (3.19)26.02 (6.08)0.07/0.200.00/0.050.21/0.62
Basal Metabolic Rate (kcal·day−1)Pre1182.11 (82.28) β1276.20 (108.51)1383.64 (224.23)0.7750.1550.027
Post1195.89 (82.62) β1281.20 (114.61)1389.00 (211.44)0.02/0.090.07/0.2920.24/0.68
Data are provided as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Abbreviations: ES = effect size; HG = healthy group; OG = obesity group; OWG = overweight group; SP = statistical power. P1 = p-value for group × time interaction effect; P2 = p-value for time effect; P3 = p-value for group effect. Bonferroni’s multiple comparisons determined: * Significant differences compared to pretest (p < 0.05). † Significant differences between groups in pretest (HG vs. OWG, p ≤ 0.018; HG vs. OG, p < 0.001; OWG vs. OG, p ≤ 0.002) and posttest (HG vs. OWG, p ≤ 0.023; HG vs. OG, p < 0.001; OWG vs. OG, p ≤ 0.002). ¥ Significant differences between groups in pretest (HG vs. OG, p < 0.001; OWG vs. OG, p = 0.005) and posttest (HG vs. OG, p < 0.001; OWG vs. OG, p = 0.001). β Significantly lower in HG than OG in pre- and posttest (p < 0.05). In weight, an interaction effect (group × time) was detected (p = 0.028). The Bonferroni test determined significant differences between groups in the pretest and posttest (p < 0.05). The OWG (p = 0.016) and OG (p < 0.001) decreased their weight after the training program. No interaction effect (group × time) was found in other body composition variables (p > 0.05).
Table
Table 3. Cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness variables.
Table 3. Cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness variables.
AssessmentHGOWGOGP1 for interaction/ES/SPP2 for time/ES/SPP3 for group/ES/SP
Participants (n) 101012
VO2peak (mL·kg−1·min−1)Pre30.38 (3.62)28.66 (2.41)29.45 (2.89)0.008 0.005 0.763
Post29.87 (2.39)30.13 (3.09) *30.93 (2.46) *0.29/0.830.24/0.830.02/0.09
Strength DA (repetitions)Pre21.00 (2.21)21.60 (3.17)18.55 (2.54)0.6960.003 0.031
Post23.20 (2.04)22.80 (3.91)20.91 (2.77)0.03/0.100.27/0.870.22/0.66
Strength NDA (repetitions)Pre21.20 (1.23)21.80 (3.43)18.09 (3.11)0.7540.001 0.01
Post23.00 (2.11)23.40 (3.95)20.64 (2.46)0.02/0.090.32/0.940.28/0.81
8 foot UP & Go (seconds)Pre5.93 (0.49)6.00 (0.59)6.12 (0.94)0.4810.008 0.786
Post5.34 (0.31)5.72 (0.62)5.24 (1.77)0.05/0.170.22/0.790.02/0.08
Jump height (cm)Pre9.21 (2.05)9.84 (1.79)11.05 (4.23)0.001 0.001 0.226
Post10.66 (2.10) *9.93 (2.10)11.17 (4.53)0.17/0.950.13/0.920.04/0.31
Power output (watts)Pre †390.64 (66.35)466.28 (60.33)554.76 (173.51)0.044 0.005 <0.001
Post418.25 (65.31) *462.99 (64.41)577.03 (168.11) *‡0.08/0.600.09/0.820.29/0.99
Data are provided as mean ± standard deviation (SD). Abbreviations: DA = dominant arm; ES = effect size; HG = healthy group; NDA = no dominant arm; OG = obesity group; OWG = overweight group; SP = statistical power. P1 = p-value for group × time interaction effect; P2 = p-value for time effect; P3 = p-value for group effect. Bonferroni’s multiple comparisons determined: * Significant differences compared to pretest (p < 0.05). † Significant differences between experimental groups in pretest (p < 0.05). ‡ Significant differences compared to HG (p < 0.001) and OWG (p = 0.001) in posttest.
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Moreira-Reis, A.; Maté-Muñoz, J.L.; Hernández-Lougedo, J.; Vilches-Sáez, S.; Benet, M.; García-Fernández, P.; Pleguezuelos, E.; Carbonell, T.; Alva, N.; Garnacho-Castaño, M.V. Aerobic Dance on an Air Dissipation Platform Improves Cardiorespiratory, Muscular and Cellular Fitness in the Overweight and Obese Elderly. Biology 2022, 11, 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11040579

AMA Style

Moreira-Reis A, Maté-Muñoz JL, Hernández-Lougedo J, Vilches-Sáez S, Benet M, García-Fernández P, Pleguezuelos E, Carbonell T, Alva N, Garnacho-Castaño MV. Aerobic Dance on an Air Dissipation Platform Improves Cardiorespiratory, Muscular and Cellular Fitness in the Overweight and Obese Elderly. Biology. 2022; 11(4):579. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11040579

Chicago/Turabian Style

Moreira-Reis, Alessandra, José Luis Maté-Muñoz, Juan Hernández-Lougedo, Sergio Vilches-Sáez, Marta Benet, Pablo García-Fernández, Eulogio Pleguezuelos, Teresa Carbonell, Norma Alva, and Manuel Vicente Garnacho-Castaño. 2022. "Aerobic Dance on an Air Dissipation Platform Improves Cardiorespiratory, Muscular and Cellular Fitness in the Overweight and Obese Elderly" Biology 11, no. 4: 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11040579

APA Style

Moreira-Reis, A., Maté-Muñoz, J. L., Hernández-Lougedo, J., Vilches-Sáez, S., Benet, M., García-Fernández, P., Pleguezuelos, E., Carbonell, T., Alva, N., & Garnacho-Castaño, M. V. (2022). Aerobic Dance on an Air Dissipation Platform Improves Cardiorespiratory, Muscular and Cellular Fitness in the Overweight and Obese Elderly. Biology, 11(4), 579. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology11040579

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop