Progress on Current-Carry Friction and Wear: An Overview from Measurements to Mechanism
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Basic Characteristics of Current-Carrying Friction and Wear
- Mechanical wear: There are always differences in the hardness and surface roughness between the two pairs in the friction process. The higher hardness acts as a rigid body scratching the softer pair and produces scratches or furrows on its surface along the friction direction such as grinding, cutting, and turning in machining. This situation belongs to two-body wear. In two-body wear, due to the furrows formed on the surface of the softer material after repeated ploughing, part of the materials on both sides of the tracks fall off, forming wear debris. After wear debris is generated, part of the wear debris is separated from the friction pair to create a large piece of wear debris, and an amount of the wear debris remains between the contact surfaces of the friction pair and participates in the friction process, which forms the so-called three-body wear. For the study of the friction and wear mechanisms, it is generally believed that abrasive wear is related to the hardness of the friction pair material, the hardness of the abrasive particles, the sliding speed, and the contact pressure. There are two theories for different tribological working conditions: one is the plastic deformation theory, and the other is the theory of plastic deformation.
- Arc erosion: The surface of the friction pair is not entirely smooth and has good contact, and a local loss of contact will occur in relative motion. The primary electron emission on the surface of the friction pair causes electrons to escape under the combined action of friction heat, Joule heat, and electric field. Due to ionization, the atoms or molecules in the out of contact gap will produce electrons and ions. In contrast, the electron or ion bombardment on the emission surface will cause secondary electron emission. Under a sufficiently large ion concentration in the gap, the gap will be electrically punctured, and an arc will occur. Arcs will produce many erosion pits and eventually result in arc erosion.
- Mechanical arc synergy: The main feature of current-carrying friction damage is the coupling effect of mechanical wear and arc erosion. To be specific, when the contact pressure between friction pairs is enormous, the close contact contributes to the generation of arc erosion, whereas the friction will also increase correspondingly, increasing the mechanical damage of the material. As a result, the material surface integrity and uniformity will be reduced, and the arc erosion will worsen. In contrast, when the contact pressure between friction pairs is slight, although the friction and mechanical wear are small, the local loss of contact will cause an electric breakdown, resulting in arc erosion. As a result, the material surface is weakened, the roughness increases, and the mechanical wear is worsened. The coupling effect of the two primarily accounts for the material wear and current-carrying performance deterioration.
2.1. Contact Form of Friction Pair
2.2. Contact Characteristics of Friction Pair in Relative Motion
3. Research Field of Current-Carrying Friction and Wear
3.1. Effect of Working Parameters on Current-Carrying Friction and Wear Properties
3.1.1. Effect of Current Density on Current-Carrying Wear
3.1.2. Effect of Sliding Speed on Current-Carrying Wear
3.1.3. Effect of Load on Current-Carrying Wear
3.1.4. Effect of Arc Ablation and Temperature Increase of Contact Surface on Current-Carrying Wear
3.1.5. Influence of Multi-Factor Coupling on Wear
3.2. Impact of Environmental Conditions and Surface Facial Mask on Wear
3.3. Effects of Current-Carrying and Friction Coupling on Friction and Wear Performance
4. Preparation Method of Conductive Wear-Resistant Self-Lubricating Coating
4.1. Cold Spraying Technology
4.2. Supersonic Plasma Spraying Technology
4.3. Applied Film
4.4. Laser Surface Modification Technology
4.5. Electroplating Technology
5. Mechanism of Current-Carrying Friction and Wear and Conductive Lubrication
5.1. Wear Mechanism and Failure Mechanism of Current-Carrying Friction and Wear
5.2. Mechanism of Conductive Lubrication
6. Simulation Analysis of Current-Carrying Friction and Wear
6.1. Simulation Calculation Method
6.2. Establishment of Temperature Field Model
6.3. Simulation and Prediction of Wear
6.4. Simulation of Environmental Conditions
7. Brief Summary, Current-Carrying Friction and Wear Problems and Future Research Trends
7.1. Brief Summary
7.2. Problems in Current-Carrying Friction and Wear Research
- (1)
- The research by both domestic and foreign scholars has mainly focused on specific application scenarios. The study has some limitations. In the same application scenario, the friction and wear devices adopted to simulate the actual working conditions and their operating conditions were also different. There were differences in the test conditions, parameters, and conditions, so the test is not repeatable and comparable.
- (2)
- The research of current-carrying friction and wear has mostly focused on single factors (e.g., mechanical, electrical, and chemical factors). The research on the friction and wear mechanism under the joint action of multiple factors is insufficient. In particular, the research on the coupling mechanism among mechanical, electrical, and chemical wear is not comprehensive as the study has mainly focused on theoretical analysis, which cannot be applied to the working conditions.
- (3)
- There are a few current-carrying frictions and wear models, so it is difficult to build a reasonable and universal model to explain the current-carrying friction and wear process. It is complex to build the pantograph catenary current-carrying friction pair model under rain and snow conditions due to the coupling effect of numerous factors on the friction pair under actual working conditions.
- (4)
- The tribology problem under the coupling field is the critical characteristic of current-carrying friction and wear. The research on the mechanism of current-carrying friction and wear under the coupling of multiple physical fields should be further investigated in depth.
7.3. Outlook for Future Research
- (1)
- The current-carrying friction pairs mainly conduct power and current, so the electric quality of the conducted current takes on a critical significance in the whole current-carrying friction and wear system. Studying the relationship between the friction and wear mechanism of current-carrying friction pairs and the electric quality of the transmission current is a subject closely linking the theoretical research results in current-carrying friction and wear with engineering practice. In future research, relevant topics can be explored.
- (2)
- A novel intelligent current collection system can be built in accordance with the theories related to current-carrying friction and wear. The contact pressure can be adjusted by dynamically monitoring the wear amount to decrease the wear amount and extend the service life of the friction pair.
- (3)
- The formation mechanism and action mechanism of electric heating under mechanical friction and wear in the coupled field and arc ablation can be investigated using modern simulation software to characterize its friction and wear behavior.
- (4)
- Based on the artificial intelligence algorithm, the current-carrying friction and wear system can be dynamically predicted. The relevant speed, load, and current control modules can be built in the simulator. The prediction model is optimized through the relevant friction and wear theory to predict the optimal working condition parameters and generate a controller with artificial intelligence. For instance, the model can be applied to the catenary, thus simultaneously ensuring the current collection quality, minimizing the effect of wear and arc erosion on the pantograph catenary, reducing the loss of the carbon sliding plate, and extending the service life. Likewise, this control method can be employed between other friction pairs to extend the service life of friction pairs as much as possible.
- (5)
- More extensive tests need to be performed to determine the support stiffness of the friction pair in the field and the application range of the contact pressure. Next, the following purpose can be achieved by using the friction pair in the area, reducing the friction loss, extending the service life, and improving the operational reliability. Subsequently, the characteristic physical quantities can be selected, in combination with the electrical contact characteristics, to characterize the arc intensity and discharge frequency. More parameters can also be adopted to characterize the flow quality to investigate the running state of the friction pair more scientifically.
- (6)
- The finite element simulation of the electric sliding contact friction and wear performance can be performed and the test results compared with the theoretical calculation to verify the model’s effectiveness. Finally, an effective prediction model of the current-carrying friction and wear performance based on the combination of test and numerical simulation can be built.
- (7)
- A perfect theoretical model should be built to investigate the current-carrying friction and wear. The artificial neural network and other algorithms can be applied to the current-carrying friction and wear research. A reasonable theoretical model under the action of multiple factors can be built, and the artificial neural network can be employed to predict the development trend of the material wear rate, friction coefficient, and current-carrying performance of the system.
- (8)
- The ultimate purpose of the current-carrying friction and wear is to provide a specific reference for the design of friction pairs and material selection by studying the change laws and evolution mechanisms of the surface parameters under different working conditions and environments. Therefore, it is necessary to further optimize the quality of coating materials in the future, explore materials integrating conductive, wear-resistant, and self-lubricating properties from the perspective of material systems, and design sound new material systems and composition ratios. For example, an ultra-high conductive copper-based coating can be doped with a suitable proportion of high conductive wear-resistant self-lubricating phases such as Ti4O7 and MAX to improve the wear resistance and electrical conductivity of the copper-based coating.
- (9)
- Develop a current-carrying friction and wear test platform. The existing current-carrying friction and wear testing machines are generally under current-carrying and have low speed, so it is not easy to simulate the natural service environment of some special coatings. Therefore, it is necessary to continuously explore the friction and wear testing machines with a heavy load, high speed, and high current to maximize the current-carrying friction and wear performance of the coatings under the actual working conditions and further improve and perfect the primary tribological data and technical support.
- (10)
- The conductive, wear-resistant, and self-lubricating mechanism of the coating, especially the coating’s current-carrying friction and wear performance mechanism under harsh working conditions and service conditions, should be explored in depth. For example, the coating surface deterioration failure analysis under high temperature, high speed, and vacuum environment, the oxidation and aging mechanism of materials, the arc generation law and protection means, etc., and the electrical and mechanical properties of the coating can be comprehensively analyzed from the microscopic mechanism.
- (11)
- Facilitate the industrial application of wear-resistant materials in a wide variety of forms of friction pairs. Theoretical research ultimately aims to achieve industrial production. Accordingly, applying and popularizing the developed materials in the field should meet the material requirements of developing high-speed and wear-resistant friction pairs. Furthermore, it is of great significance to boost the industrial transformation of research results through theoretical research.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Scholars and Agencies | References | Test Platform | Friction Pair Material | Current Density | Sliding Speed | Contact Pressure |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Da, H.H et al. | [16] | Pantograph catenary system | Carbon copper composites | 1200 A, AC 5000 [email protected] Hz and 350 A@50 Hz | 0.12 mrs | - |
Y. Hui et al. | [19] | Current-carrying friction and wear test platform | Preparation of Mo coating on 45CrNiMoVA copper surface | 0~25 A | Sliding frequency: 10 Hz | 10 N |
ABB Sweden | [20] | Pantograph catenary arc test device | Cu-impregnated carbon strip | 2–90 A@50 Hz | 30 m/s | - |
Li et al. | [21] | Current-carrying friction and wear tester | Pure copper pin specimen and chrome bronze 0.5Qcr disk specimen friction pair | 43, 48, 54, 61 A 1.52, 1.70, 1.91, 2.16 A/mm2 | 12.037 m/s | - |
Dong et al. | [22] | Improved design of pin disc friction and wear tester | Metal impregnated graphite material and stainless steel strip | 0, 20, 50, 80, 110 A | 50, 80, 110 km/h | 80 N |
S. Gu et al. | [23] | HSR-2M high speed reciprocating friction and wear tester | Graphite like carbon based thin films | 5 A, 5.5 A 6 A | Frequency: 5 Hz | 40 N |
Scholars and Agencies | References | Test Platform | Friction Pair Material | Sliding Speed | Contact Pressure | Current Density |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
W. Wang et al. | [39] | Simulated pantograph catenary contact | Copper magnesium alloy and metal impregnated carbon sliding plate | 0–565 km/h, 0–282.5 km/h, 0–141.25 km/h | 20–140 N | 12, 20, 300, 40, 60 A |
L. Dai et al. | [41] | Platform of metal impregnated carbon sliding plate material | Pure carbon materials, metal impregnated carbon materials and copper based powder metallurgy materials | 80 km/h | 70 N | 200 A |
F. Guo et al. | [42] | High performance sliding wear tester | Carbon nanotube silver graphite composites | 7.5 m/s 15 m/s | 1 N/cm2 2.5 N/cm2 | 10 A |
Researchers of Beijing Jiaotong University | [43] | Grid arc test system | copper alloy and copper alloy | Designed 113.04 km/h, actual 110 km/h | - | 20 A |
Researchers of Central South University | [44] | Auni9/auag35cu5 friction pair | Auni9 alloy wire and AuAg35Cu5 | 56.5 mm/s–194.2 mm/s | 0.3 N | - |
J. Shang et al. | [45] | Copper graphite friction layer | Copper graphite/45 # steel | 0.56 m/s, 1.12 m/s, 1.68 m/s | 10 N | - |
Scholars and Agencies | References | Test Platform | Friction Pair Material | Contact Pressure | Sliding Speed | Current Density |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Y. Hui et al. | [19] | CETR -3 multifunctional friction tester | Preparation of Mo coating on 45NiCrMoVA steel | 5, 10, 15, 20 N | Sliding frequency 10Hz | 15 A |
P. Li et al. | [34] | Current-carrying friction and wear tester | Chrome bronze/pure copper friction pair | 0.76, 0.52, 0.5, 0.35 MPa | 12, 7, 6, 3 m/s | 2.2, 1.9, 1.7, 1.5 A |
Y. Wang | [35] | Block slip ring wear tester | Copper impregnated metallized carbon and a Cu–Cr–Zr alloy | 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 N | 25 km/h | 0, 5, 10, 15, 20 A |
S. Zhang et al. | [55] | Ring-block current-carrying friction and wear test equipment | Carbon sliding plate/copper contact wire | 50, 70, 90, 110, 130 N | 160 km/h | 250 A |
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Li, S.; Yang, X.; Kang, Y.; Li, Z.; Li, H. Progress on Current-Carry Friction and Wear: An Overview from Measurements to Mechanism. Coatings 2022, 12, 1345. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings12091345
Li S, Yang X, Kang Y, Li Z, Li H. Progress on Current-Carry Friction and Wear: An Overview from Measurements to Mechanism. Coatings. 2022; 12(9):1345. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings12091345
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Shuaibing, Xingzu Yang, Yongqiang Kang, Zongying Li, and Hongwei Li. 2022. "Progress on Current-Carry Friction and Wear: An Overview from Measurements to Mechanism" Coatings 12, no. 9: 1345. https://doi.org/10.3390/coatings12091345