Point-of-Care C-Reactive Protein Testing to Reduce Antibiotic Prescribing for Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Results
2.1. Identification of Studies
2.2. Study and Population Characteristics
2.3. Intervention Characteristics
2.4. Methodological Quality and Risk of Bias in the Methods of Included Studies
2.5. Effectiveness of the Use of CRP-POCT on (patient) Outcomes
2.5.1. Primary Outcomes
Antibiotic Prescribing Rate at the Index Consultation
Subgroup Analyses of the Antibiotic Prescribing Rate at the Index Consultation
Antibiotic Prescribing Rate during Patient Follow-Up and Longer-Term Effects
2.5.2. Sensitivity Analysis and Meta-Regression
2.5.3. Secondary Outcomes
Clinical Recovery and Resolution of Symptoms
Visit Duration and Visits at Follow-Up
Re-Consultations and Intention to Re-Consult
Referrals to Secondary Care
Admissions to Hospital and Mortality
Ordering of Investigations
Patient Satisfaction and Patient Enablement
2.5.4. Combined Benefit and Harm Effect of CRP-POCT
2.5.5. Publication Bias
3. Discussion
3.1. Strengths and Limitations of this Review
3.2. Unanswered Questions and Future Research
3.3. Findings in Context with other Interventions and Reviews
4. Literature Review Methods
4.1. Search Strategy
4.2. Eligibility Criteria
4.3. Outcome Assessment
4.4. Selection of Studies and Data Extraction
4.5. Assessment of Methodological Quality and Risk of Bias
4.6. Statistical Analyses and Data Synthesis
4.7. Combined Benefit and Harm Effect of CRP-POCT
5. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Study, Clinical Setting, Facilities and Location | Population | Interventionist and Training in the Intervention | Intervention and Number Randomised at Baseline (N) | Comparator and Number Randomised at Baseline (N) | CRP-POCT Turnaround Time and Manufacturer | CRP (cut-off) Guidance for Interpretation of CRP Levels |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Schot, 2018 [61] The Netherlands Individual RCT 28 daytime general practices and 4 OOH services across three different regions in the Netherlands | Children with suspected LRTI presenting with acute cough of <21 days, reported a fever of >38 °C for <5 days Age, mean: 4 (SD 2.1), range: 3 months to 12 years Male, %: 51.5 | GPs’ training in the intervention: n.r. | GP CRP + clinical assessment; N = 136 | Usual Care: treatment decisions based on the clinical assessment as usual with no CRP; N = 165 | ≤4 min Afinion, Alere Technologies AS, Oslo, Norway |
|
Verbakel, 2016 [62,74,75,76] Belgium Cluster RCT 78 general practices across Flanders | Children with an acute infection lasting a maximum of 5 days at the initial contact Age, mean: 3.87 (SD 4.0), range: 1 month to 16 years Male, %: 52.7 | GPs trained to perform the CRP test. Internal quality control performed according to the manufacturer’s instructions | GP CRP + clinical assessment; N = 1730 infectious episodes in 2773 patients | Usual Care: usual practice + CRP only if at clinical risk and presenting at least one symptom/sign of clinical concern 1; N = 1417 infectious episodes in 2773 patients | ≤4 min Afinion AS100 Analyzer, Alere, USA |
|
Van den Bruel, 2016 [63] United Kingdom (England) Individual RCT 2 OOH services in Oxfordshire | Children with an acute illness of ≤5 days, fever of ≥38 °C Age, mean: 2.8 (SD 2.8), range: 1 month to 16 years Male, %: 51.5 | Physicians’ training in the intervention: n.r. | Physicians CRP + clinical examination according to usual care + clinical guidance on interpretation of CRP levels; N = 26 | Usual Care: clinical examination according to usual care; N = 28 | 3–4 min Afinion, Alere Technologies |
|
Rebnord, 2016 [64,77] Norway Individual RCT 4 OOH services and 1 paediatric walk-in emergency hospital facility in Bergen | Children with fever or any respiratory symptoms Age, mean: 2.3 (SD 1.8), range: 0 to 6 years Male, %: 55.7 | NPs trained in the study inclusion criteria and examination procedures, performed a clinical examination and CRP tests for all children before consultation with the doctor | NP CRP pre-tested + NP clinical examination before consultation with doctors + consultation with paediatricians or physicians with an assessment of CRP results; other tests were also available; N = 138 | Usual Care: NP clinical examination with no CRP assistance + clinical assessment by paediatricians or physicians + CRP if necessary, on individual indication; other tests were also available; N = 259 | ≤2 min QuikRead Go, Orion Diagnostica | n.r. |
Do, 2016 [65] Vietnam Individual RCT 10 primary health-care centres - northern Vietnam (routine, urgent care and hospital referral) within a 60 km radius of Hanoi. Rural sites: outpatient clinics - district general hospital (Ba Vi hospital) 60 km West Hanoi | Children and adults with suspected non-severe acute RTI, with at least one focal and one systemic sign or symptom lasting for less than 2 weeks Age, mean: 21.2 (SD 23.8), range: 1 to 65 years Male, %: 39.9 | Physicians trained to use specific CRP cut-offs with initial workshop and further training during onsite implementation. Training materials: oral presentations and written information leaflets for doctors and health centres; posters and desk reminders with recommended cut-off values for specific age groups | Physician CRP + guidance based on CRP cut-off values adapted for use in children + GPs advised to use their clinical discretion for CRP values between thresholds, and could potentially perform further examinations at their clinical discretion; all patients received a routine medical history examination; N = 1017 | Usual Care: routine practice + use of local treatment guidelines + potential to perform further examinations at the discretion of the treating physician; all patients received a routine medical history examination; N = 1019 | ≤3 min CRP single test kit NycoCard II Reader, Alere Technologies, Norway | General
|
Andreeva, 2014 [66] Russia Cluster RCT 18 general practices: 9 Arkhangelsk region, 9 Murmansk region | Adults with acute cough/LRTI (acute bronchitis, pneumonia, infectious exacerbations of COPD or asthma), illness of fewer than 28 days duration Age, mean: 50.8 (SD n.r.), range: ≥18 years Male, %: 27.4 | GPs: two vocational training sessions on CRP test, theoretical and practical information, guidelines on the interpretation of CRP, a summary of the literature on RTI and CRP role, and paper cases of patients with different RTIs and different CRP values were discussed | GP CRP + guidance on the interpretation of CRP results +/- accessibility and order of chest radiography (for all patients) and other investigations (e.g., a culture of sputum, spirometry, electrocardiogram) when necessary; N = 8 GP offices, 101 patients | Usual Care: clinical assessment with no CRP +/- chest radiography for all patients and other investigations when necessary; choice of antibiotic therapy regimen left at the discretion of physicians; N = 9 GP offices, 78 patients | ≤5 min Afinion test system, Axis-Shield, Norway |
|
Little, 2013 [67,78,79] Spain, England, Wales, Poland, Belgium, The Netherlands Individual RCT 111 GP practices from GP networks of at least 2 general practices in the localities of study centres of all 6 countries | Adults with an acute cough lasting up to 28 days, or acute LRTI as the main diagnosis (despite cough not being the most prominent symptom) and acute URTI (sore throat, otitis media, sinusitis, influenza, and coryzal illness) Age, mean: 26.4 (SD 15.0), range: ≥18 years Male, %: 36.7 | GPs: a run-in period of several weeks before data collection to practise using the device, internet training on how to target testing and how to negotiate with the patient about management decisions | GP CRP testing + guidance on the interpretation of CRP testing and prescribing + internet training on how to target testing and how to negotiate with the patient about management decisions 2; N = 1062 | 1) Usual Care: GPs assessed and managed patients according to the practice’s normal procedures; N = 870 | ≤5 min QuikRead CRP kits, Orion Diagnostica, Espoo, Finland |
|
Gonzales, 2011 [68] United States Individual RCT 1 ED supporting a 3-year emergency medicine residency program located in a large, Midwestern metropolitan city in the United States | Adults with a new cough lasting ≤21 days, at least one other symptom of acute RTI (fever, sore throat, night sweats, body aches, nasal or chest congestion, shortness of breath) Age, mean: 41.2 (SD 12.5), range: ≥18 years Male, %: 32.1 | NPs performed CRP testing; management algorithms placed for doctors in the medical chart. ED visits and house staff received current evidence on CRP levels as adjuncts in the diagnosis of pneumonia (or other antibiotic-responsive illnesses), a 1.5-h educational seminar on evidence-based recommendations for evaluation and treatment of acute cough illness and community-acquired pneumonia for adults | NP CRP + clinical algorithm to guide physicians on the ordering of chest x-ray and on antibiotic treatment for adults with acute cough illness and community-acquired pneumonia + activation of GPs in using the algorithm with a statement (“Please consider using this algorithm in your clinical care decisions, although it should not substitute for your clinical judgment”); N = 69 | Usual Care: no CRP testing + clinical management algorithm to guide recommendations for a chest x-ray and antibiotic treatment for adults with acute cough illness (based on a clinical algorithm for predicting pneumonia) + activation of GPs in using the algorithm with a statement (“Please consider using this algorithm in your clinical care decisions, although it should not substitute for your clinical judgment”); N = 62 | 1 min QuikRead CRP, Orion Corporation, Orion Diagnostica, Espoo, Finland | Low to Intermediate (<30%) probability of Pneumonia = abnormal signs OR abnormal chest examination:
|
Cals, 2010 [69] The Netherlands Individual RCT 11 family practice centres in the south-eastern Netherlands | Adults with a current episode of LRTI (cough lasting <4 weeks with ≥1 of 4 focal signs and symptoms and at least one systemic sign and symptom) or Rhinosinusitis (episodes lasting <4 weeks with at least one symptom of rhinorrhoea history and blocked nose; and at least one other symptom or sign) Age, mean: 44.3 (SD 13.8), range: ≥18 years Male, %: 30.7 | NPs received CRP device demonstration, did not communicate test result to GP or patient until after the study. GPs were informed about the trial procedure, received a 30-min practice-based seminar on the EB use of CRP, stressing the additional CRP value to rule out serious infection with emphasis on using CRP together with clinical findings, a 4-week run-in period before recruitment to get familiar with CRP devices and interpretation | NP CRP +/- GP clinical assessment and management of antibiotic therapy based on CRP results + decision-making on a management strategy including immediate, delayed or no antibiotics; N = 129 | Usual Care: no CRP testing + antibiotic therapy based on clinical assessment + decision-making on a management strategy including immediate, delayed or no antibiotics; N = 129 | ≤3 min QuikRead CRP analysers, Orion Diagnostica, Espoo, Finland |
|
Cals, 2009 [70,80,81] The Netherlands Cluster RCT 20 general practices from the South-Eastern part of Noord-Brabant province in the Netherlands including urban and rural areas; GP practices are geographically spread throughout this region | Adults with suspected LRTI, with a cough lasting <4 weeks and with one focal and one systemic symptom Age, mean: 45.4 (SD 8.2), range: ≥18 years Male, %: 38.6 | GPs received a 30-min practice-based guideline on how to use CRP, ruling out a serious infection. Practice nurses received an introduction to technical and practical aspects. Practices received an 8-week-run-in period before recruitment to enable familiarisation with CRP devices and interpretation | GP CRP + guidance on the interpretation of results based on CRP cut-off values with an emphasis on the additional value of CRP in ruling out serious infection + familiarisation with CRP devices and interpretation of results; N = 110 | (1) Usual Care: Dutch guidelines-informed clinical assessment for the diagnosis and management of acute cough, and therapeutic advice for LRTI; practices were informed that they would receive a CRP device and/or communication training after the study period; N = 120 (2) ECST: motivational interviewing built around 11 key tasks 3; practices were informed that they would receive a CRP device and/or the communication training after the study period; N = 84 (3) CRP + ECST; N = 117 | ≤3 min NycoCard II Reader, Axis-Shield, Norway |
|
Takemura, 2005 [71] Japan Individual RCT 1 general/internal medicine clinic of Nishi-Ohmiya regional/community hospital | Children and adults with a clinically relevant fever of >37.5 °C, and symptoms suspected of infection at the time of or during the week before an initial consultation Age, mean: 34.9 (SD 15.4), range: 8 to 83 Male, %: 55.9 | Physicians’ training in the intervention: n.r. | Advanced testing group: Physician CRP + WBC testing before initial consultation + information on CRP and WBC normal reference levels + if considered necessary, potential to perform urgent testing after history taking and physical examination + results of non-urgent additional or subsequent tests evaluated on patient’s next visit; N = 147 | Usual Care: non-advanced testing group defined as standard management and treatment with no CRP before initial consultation + decision-making on antibiotic management and treatment based on history taking and physical examination + if considered necessary, potential to perform urgent testing after history taking and physical examination; N = 154 | CRP approx. 40–50 min; WBC 10 min CRP multichannel analyser, model TBA-30FR; Toshiba, Saitama City, Japan |
|
Diederichsen, 2000 [72,82] Denmark Individual RCT 35 General practices in the County of Funen in Denmark | Children and adults with respiratory infections Age, mean: 41 (SD 14.2), range: median 37 (range: 0 to 90) Male, %: 42.8 | GPs discussed, before the start of the study, the trial procedure with the project leader and a product specialist from Nycomed; a supervised test trial was carried out | GP CRP + clinical assessment to guide antibiotics prescribing + information on the normal levels of CRP for antibiotic prescribing but no strict guidelines were given; N = 414 | Usual Care: clinical assessment only; N = 398 | ≤3 min NycoCard CRP Reader, Nycomed, Alere Technologies, Afinion, Norway |
|
Melbye, 1995 [73] Norway Individual RCT 10 General practices in Northern Norway | Adults with signs of pneumonia, bronchitis and asthma, who presented with symptoms of coughing or heavy breathing, or who had chest pain that was aggravated by coughing or deep inspiration Age, mean: 49.25 (SD 11.6), range: ≥18 years Male, %: 36.9 | GPs’ training in the intervention: n.r. | GP CRP + doctors’ preliminary decision on antibiotic treatment + guide on antibiotic prescribing based on the duration of illness following recommended CRP cut-off values (if a preliminary decision needed to change in light of the CRP results); N = 108 | Usual Care, N = 131 | ≤3 min NycoCard CRP Reader, Nycomed, Alere Technologies, Afinion, Norway | Disease duration 0–24 h
|
Study (First Author, Publication Year) | Inclusion Criteria | Exclusion Criteria | Primary Outcome(s) | Secondary Outcome(s) | Sample Size and Power | Attrition ≤20% 1ry Outcome (Attrition Bias) | Random Sequence Generation (Selection Bias) | Allocation Concealment (Selection Bias) | Blinding of Clinicians (Performance Bias) | Blinding of Patients (Performance Bias) | Blinding of Outcome Assessors 1ry Outcome (Detection Bias) | Blinding - Outcome Assessors 2ry Outcome (dEtection Bias) | Incomplete Outcome Data 1ry Outcome (Attrition Bias) | Selective Reporting (Reporting Bias) | Participants Comparable at Baseline | Same Length of Follow-Up | Source of Funding |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Schot, 2018 [61] The Netherlands Individual RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Netherlands Organization for HRD; Alere Technologies AS; SALTRO & Star Medical Diagnostic Centre | ||||||||||
Verbakel, 2016 [62,74,75,76] Belgium Cluster RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | NIHDI, Research Foundation Flanders, NIHR Diagnostic Evidence Co-operative Oxford | ||||||||||
Van den Bruel, 2016 [63] United Kingdom (England) Individual RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | National School for Primary Care Research | ||||||||||
Rebnord, 2016 [64,77] Norway Individual RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Norwegian Research Fund | |||||||||||
Do, 2016 [65] Vietnam Individual RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Welcome Trust UK and Global Antibiotic Resistance Partnership; Alere Technologies | ||||||||||
Andreeva, 2014 [66] Russia Cluster RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Not reported | ||||||||||
Little, 2013 [67,78,79] Spain, England, Wales, Poland, Belgium, The Netherlands Cluster RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | European Commission Framework Programme, NIHR, Research Foundation Flanders | ||||||||||
Gonzales, 2011 [68] United States Individual RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | TRIP initiative and agency for HRQ, HSRD Service of the Department of Veterans Affairs | ||||||||||
Cals, 2010 [69] The Netherlands Individual RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Orion Diagnostica Espoo Finland | ||||||||||
Cals, 2009 [70,80,81] The Netherlands Cluster RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Netherlands Organisation for HRD, Wales Office for R&D, NIHSC funded the South East Wales Trial Unit | ||||||||||
Takemura, 2005 [71] Japan Individual RCT | ✓ | ✓ | International Clinical Pathology Centre Tokyo | ||||||||||||||
Diederichsen, 2000 [72,82] Denmark Individual RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Not reported | ||||||||||||
Melbye, 1995 [73] Norway Individual RCT | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | ✓ | Norwegian Research Academy and Nycomed Pharma |
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Martínez-González, N.A.; Keizer, E.; Plate, A.; Coenen, S.; Valeri, F.; Verbakel, J.Y.J.; Rosemann, T.; Neuner-Jehle, S.; Senn, O. Point-of-Care C-Reactive Protein Testing to Reduce Antibiotic Prescribing for Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials. Antibiotics 2020, 9, 610. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9090610
Martínez-González NA, Keizer E, Plate A, Coenen S, Valeri F, Verbakel JYJ, Rosemann T, Neuner-Jehle S, Senn O. Point-of-Care C-Reactive Protein Testing to Reduce Antibiotic Prescribing for Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials. Antibiotics. 2020; 9(9):610. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9090610
Chicago/Turabian StyleMartínez-González, Nahara Anani, Ellen Keizer, Andreas Plate, Samuel Coenen, Fabio Valeri, Jan Yvan Jos Verbakel, Thomas Rosemann, Stefan Neuner-Jehle, and Oliver Senn. 2020. "Point-of-Care C-Reactive Protein Testing to Reduce Antibiotic Prescribing for Respiratory Tract Infections in Primary Care: Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials" Antibiotics 9, no. 9: 610. https://doi.org/10.3390/antibiotics9090610