Recent Advances in Bitterness-Sensing Systems
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Electronic Tongues in Bitterness Evaluation
2.1. Astree II E-Tongue (Alpha M.O.S.)
2.2. SA402B and TS-5000Z E-Tongues (Insent Inc.)
2.3. Other E-Tongues
3. Microminiaturized Biosensors for Bitterness Detection
3.1. Animal Gustatory Cortex
3.2. Bitter Taste Receptors
3.3. Bitter Taste Cells
3.4. Other Micro-Miniaturized Bitter Taste Sensors
4. Conclusions
5. Perspectives
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Bitterness-Sensing System Types | Reference | Bitterness-Sensing System | Sensing Elements | Detectable Bitter Molecules | Detection Concentrations | Advantages | Disadvantages |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
E-tongues | [65] | Astree II E-tongue | Electrodes modified with microchips of different proprietary organic membranes and ion-selective field-effect transistors (ISFETs) | Berberine hydrochloride, rhynchophylline, leonurine, matrine, and quinine | 0.5 mM | Good reproducibility and high precision, high-throughput bitterness evaluation for large samples, and easy instrument operation | Complex calibration process before detection, long detection time, and large sample volume (>80 mL) |
[74] | Levetiracetam | 10, 16.7, 33.3 mg/mL | |||||
[89] | SA402B E-tongue | Working electrodes modified with different types of lipid/polymer membranes | Chinese mitten crabs and quinine hydrochloride | 0.04 mg/mL | Good reproducibility and high precision, high-throughput bitterness evaluation for large samples, and normalization of results to a standard solution after each measurement | Complex calibration process before detection, long detection time, and large sample volume (>80 mL) | |
[90] | Diphenhydramine hydrocholoride | 0.5 mM | |||||
[91] | Naringin, quinine hydrochloride, and stevioside | 0.48 g/L 0.1 g/L 0.25 g/L | |||||
[92] | TS-5000Z E-tongue | Quinine hydrochloride | 0.1 mM | ||||
[93] | Isoniazid | 10 mg/mL | |||||
[94] | Sodium saccharin, ibuprofen lysinate, ibuprofen, acetaminophen, caffeine, caffeine citrate, and quinine hydrochloride | 1 mM 0.013 mM 0.013 mM 0.013 mM 0.05 mM 0.03 mM 0.02 mM | |||||
[98] | Other E-tongues | All-solid-state electrode (ASSE) modified with a conducting polymer | 7 tonic waters (containing quinine hydrochloride) | / | Global selectivity for quantitative and qualitative analysis, satisfied stability, sensitivity and reproducibility | Complex fabrication process | |
[99] | Interdigitated gold electrodes modified with layer-by-layer films of cationic and anionic polymer | Artesunate-mefloquine, praziquantel, and benznidazole | 0.75 mg/mL 1.5 g/mL 0.125 mg/mL | Good sensitivity, correlation of detection results with in vivo results, and evaluation of neutral bitter substance | Complex fabrication process of electrodes | ||
Biosensors | [115] | Animal gustatory cortex with inserted 16-channel microelectronic array | Denatonium benzoate | Lower than 0.1 µM | Fast (within 4 s) and stable (1 month) response, straightforward bitterness detection, and high accuracy | Complex fabrication process, strict rat-feeding requirement, and professional surgery operation; difference in bitterness response between human and rats cannot be eliminated | |
[116] | Combined human bitterness receptor hTAS2R38 with immobilized carboxylated polypyrrole nanotubes on a field-effect transistor | Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), propylthiouracil (PROP), goitrin, and allylisothiocyanate | 1 fM 10 fM 100 pM 1 nM | High sensitivity and selectivity for bitterness; time and labor-saving | Complex fabrication process | ||
[117] | E. coli-expressed human bitterness receptor hT2R4 and an indium tin oxide (ITO)-based electrolyte-semiconductor | Denatonium | 50 nM | Inexpensive, robust, and simple bitterness evaluation | Complex bioengineering process of E. coli bacteria | ||
[118] | Bitterness receptor T2R4 immobilized on QCM transducer | Denatonium | 5 nM | High sensitivity and selectivity, high efficiency in receptor expression and in situ purification | Complex and expensive fabrication process | ||
[127] | Taste bud cells on LAPS chip | Denatonium and ATP | 0.1 nM for ATP | Both extracellular membrane potential changes and ATP release from a single taste bud cell can be recorded; good selectivity and stability | Complex cell-culturing process and short working time | ||
[109] | Rat cardiomyocytes cultured on MEA sensor | Denatonium benzoate and diphenidol | 3.46 μM 2.92 μM | High sensitivity and selectivity for bitter and umami tastants | Complex fabrication process and short working time | ||
[128] | Coculturing Caco-2 cells and SH-SY5Y cells on CIS chip | Phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), propylthiouracil (PROP), salicin, and difenidol | 100 μM 100 μM 400 μM 100 μM | Cell coculturing enriched bitter receptors on sensor | Complex cell-culturing process and professional operation | ||
[129] | Coculturing taste and neuronal cells | Denatonium benzoate | 5.0 mM | Intercellular signal communication, good selectivity, and fast response time | Complex cell-culturing process and expensive instruments to record results | ||
[130] | Coculturing taste and neuronal cells on polystyrene cell culture plates coated with a decellularized tongue extracellular matrix | Saccharin | 100 μM | Ensures the functional taste cell-specific phenotypes and improves the adhesion and sensitivity of taste cells; visible bitterness detection | Complex fabrication and cell-culturing process | ||
Other bitter taste sensors | [139] | Interdigitated electrodes (IDEs) on a polymer chip prepared by laser-induced graphene technique | L-Tryptophan | 5.205 μM | Fast, low-cost, and simple-to-operate | Poor selectivity to discriminate tastants |
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Li, Y.; Langley, N.; Zhang, J. Recent Advances in Bitterness-Sensing Systems. Biosensors 2023, 13, 414. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13040414
Li Y, Langley N, Zhang J. Recent Advances in Bitterness-Sensing Systems. Biosensors. 2023; 13(4):414. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13040414
Chicago/Turabian StyleLi, Yanqi, Nigel Langley, and Jiantao Zhang. 2023. "Recent Advances in Bitterness-Sensing Systems" Biosensors 13, no. 4: 414. https://doi.org/10.3390/bios13040414