You Don’t Learn That in School: An Updated Practical Guide to Carbon Quantum Dots
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Synthesis Methods of CQDs
2.1. Hydrothermal/Solvothermal Synthesis
2.2. Microwave-Assisted Synthesis
2.3. Others
2.3.1. Electrochemical Synthesis
2.3.2. Sonochemical Synthesis/Ultrasonic Treatment
2.3.3. Laser Ablation
2.3.4. Natural Sources/Biomass/Waste Products
3. Structure Modifications
3.1. Heteroatom Doping
3.1.1. Single Heteroatom Doping
N-Doped CQDs
B-Doped CQDs
3.1.2. Co-Doping Multiplex Heteroatoms
N,P-co-CQDs
N,S-co-CQDs
N,B-co-CQDs
Tri-Doped CQDs
3.2. Surface Functionalization
3.2.1. Functionalization with Small Organic Molecules
3.2.2. Functionalization with Biological Molecules
3.2.3. Functionalization with Polymers
4. Purification/Separation
4.1. Dialysis
4.2. Reversed-Phase High Performance Liquid Chromatography
4.3. Electrophoresis
4.4. Density Gradient Ultracentrifugation
4.5. Others
5. Characterization Methods
5.1. Microscopy/Diffraction
5.1.1. Transmission and Scanning Electron Microscopies (TEM and SEM)
5.1.2. Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM)
5.1.3. X-ray Diffraction (XRD)
5.2. Spectroscopy
5.2.1. Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-vis) Spectroscopy
5.2.2. Photoluminescence (PL) Spectroscopy
5.2.3. Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
5.2.4. Raman Spectroscopy (RS)
5.2.5. X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS)
5.2.6. Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS)
6. Applications
6.1. Biomedical
6.1.1. Bioimaging
6.1.2. Drug Delivery
6.1.3. Gene Therapy/Delivery
6.1.4. Others
6.2. Chemical Sensing
6.2.1. Biological Molecules
6.2.2. Ion Sensing
6.3. Optoelectronics
6.3.1. Light-Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
6.3.2. Solar Energy Conversion
6.4. Photocatalysis
6.5. Antimicrobial and Antiviral Activity
6.5.1. Antimicrobial Activity
6.5.2. Antiviral Activity
7. Pharmacokinetics, Pharmacodynamics, and Toxicity
8. Conclusions and Future Perspective
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Type of Nanodot | SQDs | CQDs | GQDs | CNDs |
---|---|---|---|---|
Fluorescence Scheme | ||||
Structure | Inorganic elements in spherical crystalline structures | Mixture of sp2 and sp3 carbons in a quasi-spherical crystalline structure | Discal fragments of single nanosheets of sp2 carbons | Quasi-spherical amalgams of sp3 carbons in an amorphous structure |
Typical Size | <6 nm | <10 nm | <20 nm | <10 nm |
Quantum Confinement | Yes | No | ||
Light Emission | Down-conversion PL Phosphorescence | Down-conversion PL Up-conversion PL | Down-conversion PL Up-conversion PL Phosphorescence | Down-conversion PL Up-conversion PL |
Size dependent PL | Size dependent PL (undefined) | Size dependent PL (undefined) | Size-dependent PL | |
Narrow PL bands | Broad PL bands | Very broad PL bands | ||
Long PL lifetimes | Medium PL lifetimes | Short PL lifetimes |
Method | Advantages | Disadvantages | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|
Hydrothermal synthesis | Good production yields, ease of manipulation, good production yield of nanomaterials using high vapor pressure settings | Long synthesis duration | [21] |
Microwave synthesis | Clean, ease of manipulation, low-temperature, and economic | Bulk metallic materials unusable due to electromagnetic field interferences | [22,23] |
Electrochemical synthesis | Ease of operation, potential for mass production, does not involve harsh or toxic chemicals | Laborious purification processes | [24] |
Sonochemistry synthesis | The only general method for doping CQDs using bulk metals (Ga, In, Bi, Sn, Pb, Cd, Sb, and Zn) | Prolonged synthesis process | [25] |
Laser ablation synthesis | High quality CQDs, swift synthesis | Low reproducibility; difficulty in correlating experimental conditions with obtained CQDs properties | [26,27] |
Biomass synthesis | Simple, cost effective, and easily available in nature | Possible environmental contamination; necessity of additional chemical modifications to increase QY | [16,28] |
Application | Target | Ligands | Receptor | CQDs Synthesis Method | Precursors | Reaction Conditions | Modifications and Functionalization | Purification | Average Size (nm) | QY (%) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Bioimaging | HeLa cells | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | Citric acid ethylenediamine alkali lignin | 150 °C, 4 h | Lignin hybridized | Dialysis (3500 Da, 2 days) | <10 | 43 | [30] |
Bioimaging | Hela, SMMC-7721 and A549 cells | Folic acid | Folate receptors | Hydrothermal | Aconitic acid Ethylenediamine | 150 °C, 5 h | N-doping | n/a | 1.6 | 56.5 | [31] |
Growth promotion | Mung bean plant | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | Citric acid L-Cysteine D-Cysteine | 180 °C, 1.5 h | N, S-doping Chirality | Dialysis (500–1000 Da, 5 days) | 6 | L-CDs: 31 D-CDs: 33 | [32] |
Bioimaging Antitumor therapy | HeLa cells (in vivo and in vitro) | Gallic acid | n/a | Microwave-assisted | Gallic acid Citric acid Ethane diamine | 700 W, 3 min | Gallic acid hybridized | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, time 10 min) Dialysis (500 Da, 72 h) | 2–4 | 25 | [37] |
Bioimaging | Streptococcus sp. and Klebsiella pneumoniae | n/a | n/a | Mechanical and ultrasonic millings | Curcumin (BOSF) | Pulsed mode (750 W, 20 kHz), intensity of 30 W/cm2, 20 min | n/a | n/a | 13.7 | n/a | [26] |
Bioimaging | HeLa cells, L02 cells, and macrophage cells | n/a | n/a | Pulsed laser ablation | Platanus biomass | Repetition rate of 10 Hz, wavelength of 1064 nm, 20 mJ, 3–6 ns, 30 min | N-doping | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, time n/a) × 5 | 8 | 32.4 | [50] |
Bioimaging | E. coli, Aspergillus aculeatus and Fomitopsis sp. | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | Manilkara zapota fruits | blue C-dots: 100 °C, 60 min | n/a | Dialysis (12,000–14,000 Da, 24 h) | 1.9 | 5.7 | [52] |
green C-dots: 80 °C, 30 min | 2.9 | 7.9 | |||||||||
yellow C-dots: 80 °C, 15 min | 4.5 | 5.2 | |||||||||
Bioimaging | SMMC7721 cells | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | p-Phenylenediamine Ammonia | 200 °C, 8 h | N-doping | Dialysis (500–1000 Da, 3 days) | 3.2 | 13.2 | [57] |
Bioimaging | HEp-2 cells | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | Citric acid Methionine | 200 °C, 3 h | N, S-doping | Centrifugation (12,000× g rpm, 15 min) Dialysis (500 Da, 12 h) | 5 | 13.8 | [67] |
Cellular ATP monitoring | T24 cells | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | L-Cysteine D-Cysteine | 60 °C, 24 h | N, S-doping Chirality | Dialysis (MWCO n/a, time n/a) | 5–7 | 41.26 | [68] |
Bioimaging Ion detection | MCF-7 cells | n/a | n/a | Microwave-assisted | 1,6-Hexanediamine dihydrochloride Dimethylsulfoxide | 180 °C, 35 min | N, S-doping | Filtration with filter membrane (0.22 μm) Dialysis (500 Da membrane,36 h) | 4.35 | 24 | [69] |
Bioimaging | HeLa and MCF-7 cells | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | 3-Aminobenzeneboronic acid 1,2-Ethylenediamine | 160 °C, 7 h | N, B-doping | n/a | 2.61 | 47.3 | [72] |
Bioimaging Bacteria identification | Escherichia coli (E. coli), Desulfovibrio desulfuricans (D. desulfuricans), Staphylococcus sciuri (S. sciuri), Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes), Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) | 3-Aminophenylboronic acid/vancomycin hydrochloride/polymyxin B sulfate | cis-diol/(D)-Ala-(D)-Ala peptide/LPS | Hydrothermal | Ammonium citrate dibasic 3-Aminophenylboronic acid/vancomycin hydrochloride/polymyxin B sulfate | 180 ℃, 4 h | 3-Aminophenylboronic acid/vancomycin hydrochloride/polymyxin B sulfate hybridized | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 15 min) Dialysis (1000 Da, overnight) | 3–6 | n/a | [118] |
Intracellular pH imaging | HepG2 cells | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | Quercetin Ethylenediamine | 200 °C, 12 h | N-doping | Filtration with filter membrane (0.22 μm) Silica gel column chromatography (CH2Cl2/MeOH (V/V, 20/1)) | 2.7 | 13.4 | [119] |
Bioimaging | HUVEC cells | n/a | n/a | Solvothermal | m-Phenylenediamine Tobias acid | 200 °C, 10 h | N, S-doping | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 10 min.) Filtration with filter membrane (0.22 μm) | 2.59 | 37.2 | [120] |
Cell polarity imaging | HepG2 cells | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | p-Phenylenediamine | 200 °C, 12 h | N-doping | Centrifugation (6577× g, 15 min) Silica gel column chromatography (EtOH/Ethyl acetate) | 5 | 3.40 (in water) | [121] |
Drug delivery Bioimaging | HO-8910 cells | Doxorubicin | n/a | Carbonization | Sodium citrate dehydrate Urea | 200 °C, 1 h | N, S-doping Conjugation with doxorubicin | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 10 min, 3 ×) Dialysis (1000 Da, 24 h) | 2.75 | 93 | [122] |
Drug delivery Bioimaging | 4T1 cells | Hyaluronic acid | CD44 | Hydrothermal | Citric acid Branched-PEI | 180 °C, 1 h | Hyaluronic acid-modified Conjugation with doxorubicin | Ultrafilytration (MWCO: 50,000), 4000 rpm, 20 min, 4× | 10 | n/a | [123] |
Drug delivery Bioimaging | MGC-803 cells | Hyaluronic acid | CD44 | Hydrothermal | Glucose Glycol + PEI | 180 °C, 3 h + 80 °C, 3 h | Hyaluronic acid-modified Conjugation with heparin | Filtration with filter membrane (0.22 μm) Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 20 min) | 3.9 | n/a | [124] |
Drug delivery Bioimaging | SJGBM2, CHLA266, CHLA200 and U87 cells | Tranferrin | Tranferrin receptors | Reflux | Carbon nano powder | 110 °C, 15 hs | Triple-conjugated system (epirubicin, temozolomide and transferrin) | Centrifugation (3000× g rpm, 30 min) Dialysis (3500 Da, 5 days) | 3.5 | n/a | [125] |
Gene therapy Bioimaging | BT-474 cells | HER3 siRNA | HER3 | Hydrothermal | Citric acid monohydrate Ethylenediamine + Branched Polyetherimide | 200 °C, 4 h | Branched PEI -functionalized N-doping | Centrifugation (13,000× g rpm, 20 min) Dialysis (1000 Da, 96 h) | 5.5 | n/a | [126] |
Bone regeneration promotion | Pre-osteoblast cells | n/a | n/a | Microwave-assisted | Ascorbic acid PEI | 450 W, 5 min | Polymer passivation | Centrifugation (12,000× g rpm, 15 min) Filtration with filter membrane (0.22 μm) | 2–3 | n/a | [127] |
Modulation of amyloid beta fibrillation and toxicity Bioimaging | SH-SHSY5Y cells | n/a | Aβ42 | Hydrothermal | L-lysine D-lysine | 170 °C, 2 h | Chirality | Dialysis (2000 Da, 24 h) | 3.9 | n/a | [128] |
Photosynthesis enhancement (growth stimulation) | Chloroplasts (in vivo and in vitro) | n/a | n/a | Microwave-assisted | Glutathione Formamide | 800 W, 3 min | N, S-doping | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 5 min) Dialysis (3500 Da, time n/a) | 3.8 | 18.5 | [40] |
Gene therapy Bioimaging | A549 cells | n/a | n/a | Solvothermal | PEI 600 Da | 180 °C, 5 h | functionalization with hydrophobic chains with different degrees of substitution | Filtration with filter membrane (0.45 μm) Dialysis (1000 Da, 3 days) | 6.4 | PEI-CD: 21.49 | [129] |
Gene therapy Bioimaging | Kaposi’s sarcoma-associated herpes virus (KSHV) cells (in vivo and in vitro) | locked nucleic acid (LNA) | Viral miRNAs | Microwave-assisted | Citric acid PEI | 1150 W, 3 min | locked nucleic acid (LNA) functionalized | Centrifugation (13,000× g rpm, 10 min) Dialysis (14,000 Da, 2 days) | 3.0 | n/a | [130] |
Bioimaging | Fusarium oxysporum, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, B. subtilis, E. coli, MCF-7 and HepG2 cells | n/a | n/a | Microwave-assisted | Pomegranate Watermelon extract PEG 200 | Microwave radiation, 2 min at the interval of 10 s each | Polymer passivation | n/a | 1–5 | n/a | [131] |
Bioimaging | HeLa cells | Human serum albumin | gp60 | Pyrolysis | Tartaric acid L-tyrosine | 220 °C, 30 min | HSA modified | n/a | 5.50 | n/a | [85] |
Drug delivery Bioimaging | HeLa and HEK 293 T cells | Doxorubicin | Folate receptors | Hydrothermal | Citric acid BPEI folic acid | 200 °C, 4 h | Polymer passivation β-cyclodextrin modified | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 15 min) Dialysis (100–500 Da, 48 h) | 2.8 | 64.5 | [87] |
Antioxidant capacity enhancement | Arabidopsis thaliana seedlings | Phenol | Horseradish peroxidase | Electrochemical | Ammonia | certain voltage with graphite electrodes; electrolyte of a certain concentration of ammonia aqueous solution; several days | N-doping Horseradish peroxidase modified (immobilization) | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 15 min) Dialysis (3500 Da membrane) | n/a | n/a | [88] |
Gene therapy Bioimaging | HeLa cells | Cy5-labelled DNA | n/a | Hydrothermal | Citric acid Pcyclen | 180 °C, 5 h | Polymer passivation | Centrifugation (12,000× g rpm, 10 min) Dialysis (1000 Da, 1 day) | 1.8 | 3.25 | [89] |
Citric acid Ptaea | 5.4 | 1.73 | |||||||||
Antioxidant capacity | human dermal fibroblasts | n/a | n/a | Microwave-assisted | L-lysine Propylene carbonate | 240 °C, 120 min | Polymer passivation | Dialysis (500–1000 Da, time n/a) | 2–5 | 23.3 | [90] |
Drug delivery Bioimaging | MCF-7 cells | Methotrexate | Folate receptors | Microwave-assisted | Gelatin PEG | 600 W, 10 min | Polymer passivation | Centrifugation (12,000× g rpm, 15 min) | 6 | 34 | [91] |
Bioimaging: Microorganism imaging and cancer/normal cells differentiation In vivo nude mice bearing U14 tumours diagnosis | Hep G2, A549, L02 and U14 and AT II cells Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Trichoderma reesei, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae cells Zebrafish | n/a | Fe3+/Glutathione | Solvothermal | N-[3-(Trimethoxysilyl)propyl]ethylenediamine (DAMO) glycerol | degassing process with nitrogen, 2 min 260 °C, 12 h | n/a | Centrifugation (8000× g rpm, 10 min) Dialysis (~1 kDa, 2 days) | ~6.1 | 45 | [132] |
Bioimaging Drug delivery | Nucleolus | Protoporphyrin IX (PpIX) | RNA (nucleolus) caveolae-mediated endocytosis (CvME), lipid raft-mediated endocytosis (LrME), clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME), and macropinocytosis (cellular uptake) | Hydrothermal | m-phenylenediamine L-cysteine | 160 °C, 10 h | dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCC) 1-hydroxybenzotriazole (HOBt) | Centrifugation (15,000× g rpm, 15 min) Dialysis (1000 Da, 2 days) | CQs: 3.8 | ~8.4 | [133] |
CDs-PpIX: 25.2 | 62.1 | ||||||||||
Bioimaging in vivo | Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans) BALB/c mice | n/a | n/a | (i) Hydrothermal treatment (Blue-CQDs) (ii) ortho-phosphoric acid treatments (Green-CQDs) | beetroot extract (Beta vulgaris) | 150 °C, 16 h | n/a | Centrifugation (1500× g rpm, 2500 rpm and 4000 rpm, 10 min each) | (i) 5 (ii) 8 | (i) 6 (ii) 5 | [134] |
100 °C, 2 h | |||||||||||
Gene delivery | HEK 293 T, NIH 3T3, COS-7, and HepG2 cells B16F10 and A549 cells Primary 3T3-L1 and mESCs cells | pDNA | Cytomembrane, Karyotheca, endosome/lysosome, membranes | Solvothermal | tetrafluoroterephthalic acid (fluorine) terephthalic acid 1.8 kDa branched-polyethyleneimine (1.8 k b-PEI) 25 kDa branched-polyethyleneimine (25 k PEI) | 180 °C, 6 h | fluorine-doped cationic CDs (FCDs): tetrafluoroterephthalic acid (fluorine) pDNA | Dialyzed (3.5 kDa, time n/a) | 4.8 (FCDs) 150–200 (FCDs/DNA) | n/a | [135] |
Drug delivery | Porphyromonas gingivalis (P. gingivalis) | metronidazole (MET) | n/a | Hydrothermal | chlorophyll | 240 °C, 18 h | n/a | Centrifugation (5000× g, 30 min) Filtration (0.22 mm) Ultrafiltration membranes (3 kDa and 30 kDa) | 2–4 | 56% | [136] |
Cancer detection | - | - | - | Hydrothermal (CDs) | sweet lemon peel | 180 °C, 3 h (CDs) | 1-(3- Dimethylaminopropyl)-3-ethyl carbodiimide (EDC) | Filtration Concentration rotary evaporator | 1.5 –6.5 | n/a | [137] |
Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC) | polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers (G1, G2 and G3) | Copper (II) overexpressed in TNBC MDA-MB-231 cells | Hydrothermal (CD-PAMAM (CDP): CDP1, CDP2, CDP3 | CDs | RT, 16 h | N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS) ethylenediamine (EDA) PAMAM dendrimers G1, G2 and G3 | Dialysis (3.5 kDa, 3 days) | n/a | |||
Gene therapy Bioimaging agent for TNBC cells | Triple negative breast cancer (TNBC)—MDA-MB 231 cell | eGFP-pDNA | RGD receptor αvβ3 integrin | Hydrothermal (RGDS decorated CDP3 (CDP3-RGDS)) | CDP conjugated (PAMAM) dendrimers G3 (CDP3) | RT, 16 h | EDC and NHS RGDS peptide | Dialysis (3.5 kDa, 3 days) | 7–27 | n/a | |
Skin permeability | methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538) methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 4300) Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC 49134) Bacillus cereus (ATCC 14579) | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | polyethyleneimine (PEI) citric acid (CA) | 250 °C, 4 h | N-doping | Dialysis (≥12,000 Da, 24 h) | 70–10 | PEI:CA ratio (1:0,5)–31 (1:1)–53 (1:2)–7.6 | [138] |
Induction of potent humoral and cellular immune responses | LnCaP cells Bone marrow-derived dendritic cells (BMDCs) Mouse leukemic monocyte macrophage cells (RAW264.7) BALB/c mice OVA-specific CD4 +T and CD8 +cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) | ovalbumin (OVA) antigen | antiOVA IgG1, IgG2a and IgG2b | Hydrothermal | N,N′-dodecyl2-hydroxyl-N,N,N′,N′-tetramethyl diammonium dichloride (BQAS) | 180 °C, 12 h | ovalbumin (OVA) | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm,15 min) Dialysis (500 Da, 12/12 h) | 3.74 | 7.8 | [139] |
Cancer bioimaging | 27 cancer cell lines of different origin, a side population (SP) of cancer stem-like cells isolated from MDA-MB-231 cells27, brain cancer stem cell lines (BCSCs), 12 patient-derived and 18 non-cancerous cell lines mice bearing HeLa tumours | n/a | large neutral amino acid transporter (LAT1) | Hydrothermal | LAAM TC-CQDs: 1,4,5,8-tetraminoanthraquinone (TAAQ) citric acid (CA) | 180 °C, 2 h | n/a | Silica column chromatography using mixtures of dichloromethane and methanol (10:1) as eluents for three rounds | 2.45 | 6.8 (in water) | [140] |
Drug delivery | cancer cells and non-cancerous cells | DNA-damaging chemotherapy drugs: topotecan hydrochloride (TPTC), DOX and hydroxycamptothecin | Nuclei DNA | topotecan hydrochloride (TPTC) DOX hydroxycamptothecin | Dialysis (MWCO n/a, time n/a) | ||||||
Brain cancer imaging and treatment | mice bearing U87 brain tumours | topotecan hydrochloride (TPTC) | LAT1 in Blood-Brain Barrier (BBB) | ||||||||
Tumour-specific imaging and drug delivery | HeLa and CCC-ESF-1 cells | 1,4-diaminoanthraquinone (1,4-DAAQ | LAT1-mediated tumour-specific | 1,4-CQDs: 1,4-diaminoanthraquinone (1,4-DAAQ) citric acid (CA) | n/a | Silica column chromatography using mixtures of dichloromethane and methanol (20:1) as eluents | n/a | n/a | |||
1,5-diaminoanthraquinone (1,5-DAAQ) | 1,5-CQDs: 1,5-diaminoanthraquinone (1,5-DAAQ) citric acid (CA) | n/a | n/a | ||||||||
2,6-diaminoanthraquinone (2,6-DAAQ) | 2,6-CQDs: 2,6-diaminoanthraquinone (2,6-DAAQ) citric acid (CA) | n/a | n/a | ||||||||
n/a | Solvothermal | Phe-CQDs: phenylalanine (Phe) | 180 °C in oven, 8 h | n/a | Silica column chromatography using mixtures of dichloromethane and methanol (50:1) as eluents | n/a | n/a | ||||
Bioimaging | HeLa cells BALB/c mice | ibuprofen | n/a | Microwave- assisted | Triethanolamine Ibuprofen | 700 W, 8 min | N-doping | Centrifugation (8000× g rpm, 10 min) Dialysis (14 kDa, 3 days) | 6.99 | 22 | [141] |
Anti-inflammatory | BALB/c mice | COX-1 or COX-2 | |||||||||
Bioimaging | Mung beans (Vigna radiata) Human MG-63 osteosarcoma cell line Laboratory-bred strain golden hamsters | n/a | Malachite green | Hydrothermal | Sandalwood powder | 200 °C, 8 h | n/a | Centrifugation (15,000× g rpm, 20 min) Filtration (0.22 µm) | 3.5 | 12 | [142] |
Bioimaging | Hepg2 cells | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | Citric acid borax p-phenylenediamine | 180 °C, 5 h | N, B-doping | Filtration (0.22 μm) Dialysis (500 Da, 24 h) | 3.53 | n/a | [143] |
Analyte(s) | Sensing Mechanism | CQDs Synthesis Method | Precursors | Reaction Conditions | Modifications and Functionalization | Purification | Average Size (nm) | QY (%) | Linear Range | Limit of Detection | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Folic acid | dynamic quenching | Hydrothermal | Aconitic acid (AA) 1,2-ethylenediamine (EDA) | 150 °C, 5 h | N-doping | n/a | 1.6 | 56.5 | 1–100 µm | 40 nm | [31] |
Fe (II) | static quenching | Hydrothermal | succinic acid glycerol | 250 °C, 6 h | n/a | Dialysis (1000 Da, 3 days) Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 20 min) | 2.3 | 11 | 10–50 μm | 21.9 μm 0.7 μm | [33] |
H2O2 | 4.6 | 100–500 nm | |||||||||
Picric acid | FRET | Hydrothermal | L-Lysine thiourea | 220 °C, 5 h | N,S-doping | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 10 min) | 6.86 | 53.19 | 1–10 μm | 0.24 μm | [34] |
Cr (VI) | IFE | Continuous hydrothermal flow | citric acid ammonia | 450 °C | N-doping | Filtration (0.22 µm alumina membrane) Dialysis (30 kDa, 1 kDa, time n/a) | 3.3 ± 0.7 | 14.91 ± 0.24 | 5–250 ppm | 0.365 ppm | [22] |
Tetracycline | static quenching | Microwave-assisted | glycerol urea | 700 W, 4 min | N-doping | Centrifugation (3000× g rpm, 4 min) Dialysis (12,000 Da, 3 days) | 13.2 | 9.8 | 0.50–25 μm | 165 nm | [36] |
Levofloxacin | ET | Microwave-assisted | L-cysteine ammonium citrate | 750 W, 2.5 min | N,S-doping | n/a | 2 | 64 | 0.01–70 mg L−1 | 5.1 μg L−1 | [24] |
Alkaline phosphatase | fluorescence quenching (ON-OFF) | Electrochemical | Pyrocatechol ethanediamine | 10 V DC, 30 min | N-doping | Dialysis (3500 Da, 1 day) | 3.15 | 30.6 ± 0.12 | 5–500μm | 0.5 μm | [42] |
Alkaline phosphatase | ratiometric fluorescence | Electrochemical | [BMIM][BF4] | 15 V DC, 4 h | Ionic liquid-functionalization | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 20 min) Dialysis (1000 Da, 2 days) | 2.75 | 23.4 | 0.04–3.2 U L−1 (12 to 960 pm) | 0.012 U L−1 (3.6 pm) | [43] |
Fe (II) | fluorescence quenching and ratiometric fluorescence | Ultrasonic | dopamine hydrochloride dimethylformamide | pulsed mode (600 W, 20 kHz) with a frequency of 1 s, 8 h | N-doping | Centrifugation (n/a rpm, time n/a) Dialysis (500 Da, time n/a) | 2.8–4.1 | 3.6 | 0–50 μm | 38 nm | [46] |
Fe (III) | fluorescence quenching | Pyrolysis | Aloe-Vera extract | 190 °C, 20 min | n/a | Dialysis (300 Da, time n/a) | 6–8 | 12.3 | 70 ppb–10 ppm | 33 ppb | [51] |
Dopamine | ET | Hydrothermal | polyacrylamide | 180 °C, 5 h | N-doping | Centrifugation (13,000× g rpm, 20 min) Filtration (0.22 µm) | 3 | 23.1 | 0.1–200 μm | 0.05 μm | [56] |
Cr (VI) | IFE | Hydrothermal | p-phenylenediamine ammonia | 200 °C, 8 h | N-doping | Dialysis (500–1000 Da, 3 days) | 3.2 | 13.2 | 0.0375−3 μm | 22.5 nm | [57] |
2,4,6-Trinitrophenol (TNP) | 19−27 μm | 3.69 μm | |||||||||
ascorbic acid | 5–50 μm | 3.2 μm | |||||||||
Fe (III) | dynamic quenching | Hydrothermal | o-phenylenediamine (OPD) 2,5 pyridinedicarboxylic acid (2,5 PDC) | 180 °C, 5 h | N-doping | Centrifugation (n/a rpm, time n/a) Filtration (0.22 µm) Dialysis (3500 Da, 1 day) | 4.7 | 47 | 3–60 μm | 0.31 μm | [58] |
Cu (II) | 0.5–15 μm | 56 nm | |||||||||
Amoxicillin | fluorescence enhancement | Hydrothermal | citric acid boric acid | 210 °C, 24 h | B-doping | Filtration (0.22 µm) | 2.3 | 30.85 | 1.43–429.12 μm | 0.825 μm | [60] |
Potassium sorbate | FRET | Hydrothermal | phenylboronic acid | 200 °C, 10 h | B-doping | Centrifugation (7060× g, 15 min) Filtration (0.22 µm) Dialysis (100 Da, 48 h) | 3.3 | 12 | 0.20–24 μm | 6.1 nm | [61] |
Vitamin B12 | 0.20–30 μm | 8.0 nm | |||||||||
Cd (II) | fluorescence enhancement | Hydrothermal | o-phosphorylethanolamine citric acid | 180 °C, 12 h | N,P-doping | Dialysis (1000 Da, overnight) Filtration (0.22 µm) | 1.6 | 8.17 | 0.5–12.5 μm | 0.16 μm | [63] |
Cu (II) | IFE | Hydrothermal | Glucose concentrated H3PO4 polyethylene glycol diamine | 90–100 °C, 9 h | N,P-doping | Centrifugation (14,000× g rpm, 30 min) Dialysis (1000 Da, 1 day) | 3.5 | 25 | 4×10−9–4 × 10−7 M | 1.5 nm | [64] |
Curcumin | IFE | Self-exothermic reaction | Glucose 1,2-ethylenediamine concentrated phosphoric acid | acid-base neutralization spontaneous heat,6 min | N,P-doping | Dialysis (1000 Da, 3 days) | 3.5 ± 0.2 | 9.59 | 0.5–20 µm | 58 nm | [65] |
MnO4- | fluorescence quenching | Microwave-assisted | 1,6-hexanediamine dihydrochloride dimethyl sulfoxide | 180 °C, 35 min | N,S-doping | Filtration (0.22 µm) Dialysis (500 Da, 36 h) | 4.35 | 24 | 1–20 μm | 0.34 μm | [69] |
Cr2O72- | Linearity not satisfied | 0.23 μm | |||||||||
Permanganate | static quenching | Hydrothermal | p-amino salicylic acid boric acid ethylene glycol dimethacrylate | 180 °C, 5 h | N,B-doping | Centrifugation (12,000× g rpm, 15 min) Filtration (0.22 µm) Dialysis (1000 Da, 1 day) | 5 | 19.6 | 0.05–60 μm | 13 nm | [71] |
Captopril | 0.1–60 μm | 0.03 μm | |||||||||
Glucose | aggregation-induced emission (AIE) | Hydrothermal | 4-carboxyphenylboronic acid o-phenylenediamine rhodamine B | 150 °C, 5 h | N,B-doping | Centrifugation (rpm n/a, time n/a) | 30 | 46 | 32 μm–2 mm | 8 μm | [73] |
Tetracycline | IFE | Ultrasonic | thiamine pyrophosphate | alkaline solution, room temperature, 240 min | N,S,P-doping | Dialysis (2000 Da, 48 h) | 3.19 | 20.5 | 0.1−20 μm | 0.0444 μm | [74] |
Cr (VI) | IFE | Hydrothermal | p-aminobenzenesulfonic acid tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride | 180 °C, 10 h | N,S,P-doping | Filtration (0.22 µm) Dialysis (500 Da, 72 h) | 2.18 | 36.8 | 1–500 μm | 0.23 μm | [75] |
miRNA-9 | fluorescence enhancement | Hydrothermal | Thiourea o-phenylenediamine | 200 °C, 8 h | N-doping | Filtration (0.22 µm) Dialysis (MWCO n/s, time n/a) | 3.6 ± 0.5 | n/a | 4.00–250 fm | 0.57 ± 0.12 fm | [144] |
Thiourea | static quenching (ON-OFF) | Hydrothermal | ammonium citrate dextrin | 165 °C, 5.5 h | N-doping | Filtration (0.22 µm) | 1 | 17 | 0.90–10.0 μm | 0.15 μm | [145] |
Catechol | photoelectron transfer | Hydrothermal | citric acid sodium tetraphenylborate | 180 °C, 8 h | B-doping | Extraction method with CCl4/H2O | 8 | 42 | 1–50 nm | 0.25 nm | [146] |
Glutathione | 2–100 nm | 0.5 nm | |||||||||
L-cysteine | Chemiluminescence enhancement | Hydrothermal | Starch | 190 °C, 2 h | n/a | Centrifugation (15,000× g rpm, 20 min) | 3.2 | n/a | 10.0–100 μm | 8.8 μm | [147] |
Dopamine | fluorescence quenching | Hydrothermal | anhydrous citric acid ethylenediamine | 150 °C, 2 h | N-doping | Dialysis (3000 Da, 2 days) | n/a | n/a | 0.05–15 μm | 0.035 μm | [148] |
α-lipoic acid | 0.5−55 μm | 0.39 μm | |||||||||
Ca (II) | static quenching | Hydrothermal | 1st) citric acid and ethylenediamine 2nd) thylenebis(oxyethylenenitrilo)tetraacetic acid (EGTA) | 180 °C, 8 h + 150 °C, 4 h | EGTA functionalized | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, time n/a) Dialysis (500 Da, 1 day) | 5 | n/a | 15−300 μm | 0.387 μm | [149] |
Fe (II) | fluorescence quenching | Pyrolysis | mango (Mangifera indica) leaves | 300 °C, 3 h | n/a | Vacuum filtration | 2 to 10 | 18.2 | 0–1000 μL of 10 ppm Fe (II) | 0.62 ppm | [150] |
Cu (II) | static quenching | Pyrolysis | Vitis vinifera grape juice | 200°C, 6 h | Polyamine functionalized | Filtration (0.45 µm) | 8 | 32.1 | 0.07–60 μm | 0.02 μm | [151] |
S2- | 0.8−95 μm | 0.24 μm | |||||||||
Cr (VI) | dynamic and static quenching | Hydrothermal | Potato | 150 °C, 90 min 200 °C, 2.5 h | n/a | Filtration Paper filtration (11 µm) Centrifugation (12,000× g rpm, 10 min) | 5.97 | 6.08 | 0.5−100 μm | 0.012 μm | [152] |
Fe (III) | 0.5−5 μm | 0.000549 μm | |||||||||
Pb (II) | ET | Hydrothermal | L-lysine L-glutathione | 190 °C, 24 h | Thiol-functionalized | Filtration Centrifugation (8000× g rpm, 20 min) | 5 | n/a | 0−20 μm | 2.2 μm | [83] |
Glucose | fluorescence quenching | Microwave-assisted | citric acid tyramine | 800 W, 120 s | N-doping; Tyramine hybridized | Centrifugation (9000× g rpm, 15 min) Filtration (0.45 µm) | 17.5 | 11.0 ± 0.8 | 10−6–10−5 M | n/a | [84] |
Pb (II) | static quenching | Microwave-assisted | Urea citric acid boric acid | 700 W, 4 min | N,B-doping; BSA modified | Dialysis (500 Da membrane, 1 day) | <5 | n/a | 1−10 ppb | 0.08 ppb | [86] |
Fe (III) | fluorescence static quenching | Solvothermal | Glycerol N-[3-(trimethoxysilyl)propyl]ethylenediamine (DAMO) | degassing process with nitrogen, 2 min 260 °C, 12 h | Silicon and Nitrogen co-doping | Centrifugation (8000× g rpm, 10 min) Dialysis (~1 kDa, 2 days) | ~6.1 | 45 | 0.1–100 µm | 16 nm | [132] |
Fe3+ | Fluorescent quenching | Hydrothermal | Thiamine hydrochloride (Vitamin B1) ethylenediamine | 200 °C, 12 h | S-doping | Centrifugation (rpm n/a, time n/a) Dialysis (3500 Da, 3 days) | 3.2 | 4.4 | 0.1−1.0 mm | 177 nm | [153] |
tetracycline | Fluorescent static quenching | Microwave-assisted | Xylan NH4OH | 200 °C, 200 W, 10 min | N-doping | Filtration (0.22 μm) | 7.89 | 4 | 0.05–20 μm | 6.49 nm | [154] |
Xylan-derived N-CQDs without N-doping | 2 | ||||||||||
Hematin | Fluorescent static quenching (IFE) | Solvothermal | p-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) | 180 °C, 12 h | n/a | Silica column chromatography | 11.8 | n/a | 0.5–10 μm | 0.25 μm | [155] |
glutathione | CQDs-H2O2- TMB (3, 3′, 5, 5′-tetramethylbenzidine) system | Acid refux | wood soot HNO3 | 140 °C, 12 h | n/a | Dialysis (MWCO n/a, 2 days) Centrifugation (16,000× g rpm, 15 min) Ultra-filtration | 2.3 | n/a | 0.05–20 μm | 0.016 μm | [156] |
Pesticides: propanyl parathion dimethoate chlorpyrifos pyrimicarb | FRET | Hydrothermal | riboflavin | 160 °C (1, 2, 5 h) 180 °C (1, 2, 5 h) 200 °C (1, 2, 5 h) | n/a | Dialysis (12 h/12 h) of “CD6 (180 °C, 5 h)” | 3.47 ± 0.02 (CD6) | n/a | n/a | n/a | [157] |
H2O2 | M-CQDs-H2O2-TMB (3, 3′, 5, 5′-tetramethylbenzidine) system | Hydrothermal | Mustard seeds | 180 °C, 4 h | n/a | Centrifugation (15,000× g rpm, 20 min) | 4.58 ± 0.26 | 4.6 | 0.02−0.20 mm | 0.015 mm | [158] |
ascorbic acid | 10−70 µm | 3.26 µm | |||||||||
Acetone | enhancement in PL emission | Hydrothermal | citric acid borax p-phenylenediamine | 180 °C, 5 h | N, B-doping | Filtration (0.22 μm) Dialysis (500 Da, 24 h) | 3.53 | n/a | 1–200 μm | 0.54 μm | [143] |
Dopamine | static quenching mechanism | 0.1–70 μm | 11 nm | ||||||||
m-benzenediol (resorcinol) | Fluorescence enhancing | Hydrothermal | Cryptococcus | 160 ℃, 1 h | n/a | Centrifugation (5000× g rpm, 5 min) Filtration (0.22 mm) Dialysis (100 Da, 12 h) | 4–9 | 14.13 | 2 × 10−8–4 × 10−4 m | 8.68 nm | [159] |
p-benzenediol ((hydroquinone) | Fluorescence quenching | 4 × 10−9–2 × 10−5 M | 6.7 nm | ||||||||
Cu (II) | Fluorescence quenching | Dry-Pyrolysis | Finger millet ragi (Eleusine coracana) | 300 °C (step of 5 °C/min), 3 h at 300 °C | n/a | Filtration (0.22 µm) | 6 | n/a | 0–100 μm | 10 nm | [160] |
Ellagic acid | Fluorescent static quenching (inner filter) | Hydrothermal | citric acid diethylenetriamine | 180 °C, 10 h | N-doping | Dialysis tube (500 Da, time n/a) | 3.16 | 84.79 | 0.01–50 μm | 0.01 μm | [161] |
Dimethoate | fluorescence static quenching | Dry-Pyrolysis | pork rib bones from food waste | 1st) 700 °C, 5 h 2nd) Centrifugation (6000× g rpm, 6 min) 3rd) 200 °C, 10 h | dithizone | Filtration (0.22 μm) | 4.2 ± 1.2 | n/a | 0.15 μm–5.0 μm | 0.064 μm | [162] |
curcumin in dietary foods | IFE and dynamic interaction | Solvothermal | m-phenylenediamine citric acid | 180 °C, 12 h | N-doping | Dialysis (500–1000 Da, 24/24/24 h) | 4.5 | 61.7 | 0.01–25.0 μm | 28.7 nm | [163] |
Diazinon | Fluorescent static quenching | Hydrothermal (Aqueous extracts) | Blue rose petals | 200 °C, 2 h | n/a | Filtration | 37 | 46 | 0.02–10 µm | 0.01 µm | [164] |
Red rose petals | 39 | 44 | |||||||||
Yellow rose petals | 33 | 48 | |||||||||
Solvothermal (Alcoholic extracts) | Blue rose petals | 30 | 43 | ||||||||
Red rose petals | 27 | 46 | |||||||||
Yellow rose petals | 26 | 47 | |||||||||
Ovalbumin (OVA) | C-MIPs@FITC | Hydrothermal | citric acid ethylenediamine | 200 °C, 5 h. | N-doping | Dialysis (MWCO n/a, 24 h) | n/a | n/a | 0.05–2 μm | 15.4 nm | [165] |
SiO2 NPs (i) OVA (i) APTES (i) TEOS (ii) NH3.H2O (ii) FITC (iii) | (i) Stirring 1 h (ii) Stirring 24 h (iii) Stirring 2 h | (MIPs@FITC) OVA fluorescent imprinted nanoparticles | (ii) centrifugation and washing w/methanol/acetic acid (9:1, v/v) (iii) washing w/ethanol | 90 | |||||||
CDs MIPs@FITC PBS | mixing | (C-MIPs@FITC) molecularly imprinted ratiometric fluorescence nanosensor | n/a | n/a |
(A) | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Application | CCT (K) | Lmax (cd m−2) | ηc (cd A−1) | CQDs Synthesis Method | Precursors | Reaction Conditions | Modifications and Functionalization | Purification | Average Size (nm) | QY (%) | Ref. |
LEDs | n/a | 1882–4762 | 1.22–5.11 | Solvothermal | Phloroglucinol (PG) | 200 °C, 2 h, 5 h, 9 h, and 24 h | n/a | Silica gel column chromatography (Dichloromethane and Methanol (variable) | 1.9–3.9 | blue CQDs: 66 green CQDs: 72 yellow CQDs: 62 red CQDs: 54 | [166] |
LEDs | 6000 | n/a | n/a | Reflux | Diammonium hydrogen citrate Urea | 180 °C, 15 min | N-doping | Centrifugation (6000× g rpm, 20 min) | 4–10 | 16 | [167] |
LEDs | n/a | 2–174 | 9 × 10−4–2 × 10−3 | Hydrothermal or Hot injection | Citric acid HDA/urea/EDA/PDA | 200 °C, 5 h or 160 °C, 16 h | N-doping HDA/EDA/PDA hybridization | Centrifugation (4500× g rpm, Time n./a) | 3.6, 5.4, 3.3, 31.7 | EDA-CQDs: 43 PDA-CQDs: 8 HAD-CQDs: 40 Urea-CQDs: 35 | [168] |
LEDs | 2520 | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | 2,7-dihydroxynaphthalene Ethylenediamine | 180 °C, 12 h | N-doping | Centrifugation (8000× g rpm, 5 min) | 3.31 | 62.98 | [169] |
LEDs | n/a | n/a | n/a | Microwave-assisted | Citric acid o-Phenylene-diamine (oPD) | 125 °C, 5 min | N-doping | Dialysis (1000 Da, 30 min) | 1.1 | 5.4 | [38] |
LEDs | 6250 | n/a | n/a | Reflux | Citric acid Tris-HMA | 225 °C, 20 min | N-doping Polymer passivation | Dialysis (1000 Da, 2 days) | 3.35 | 23 | [92] |
LEDs | 3913, 5994, 10000 | n/a | n/a | Solvothermal | o-Phenylenediamine 4-aminobenzenesulfonic acid folic acid boric acid acetic acid terephthalic acid tartaric acid | 180 °C, 12 h | N-doping | Dialysis (MWCO n/a, Time n/a) in ethanol | 3.01 | b-CQDs: 25 c-CQDs: 36 g-CQDs: 28 yg-CQDs: 72 y-CQDs: 45 o-CQDs: 59 r-CQDs: 47 dr-CQDs: 52 w-CQDs: 39 | [170] |
(B) | |||||||||||
Application | Jsc (mA/cm2) | Voc (V) | η (%) | CQDs Synthesis Method | Precursors | Reaction Conditions | Modifications and Functionalization | Purification | Average Size (nm) | QY (%) | Ref. |
Solar converters | 22.2 | 1.05 | 15 | Hydrothermal | Citric acid Urea | 200 °C, 6 h | TiO2 | Wash with deionized water and ethanol numerous times | 30–40 | n/a | [171] |
Solar converters | n/a | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | Citric acid Ethylenediamine TRIS | 200 °C, 6 h | N-doping | Dialysis (3000 Da, 2 h) | 2 | 50 | [172] |
Hot-injection | PbBr2/PbCl2 salts | - | n/a | - | 11–14 | CsPb (Br0.8Cl0.2)3 QDs: 70 CsPb(Br0.2I0.8)3 QDs: 60 | |||||
Solar converters | 12.67–18.49 | 0.46–0.48 | 3.26–4.97 | Microwave-assisted | Citric acid Urea | 800 W, 5 min | N-doping | Filtration with a cylinder filtration membrane filter (0.22 μm) | 2.9 | 80 | [173] |
Solar converters | 35.98 | 0.62 | 17.86 | Hydrothermal | Citric acid KH-792 Thiourea | 180 °C, 12 h | N-doping | Wash with hexane, 3 times Dialysis (MWCO n/a, 24 h) | 2–3 | 20.68 | [174] |
Solar converters | 17.4 | 0.738 | 9.04 | Hydrothermal | Lotus root powder Sulphuric acid Ammonium hydroxide | 170 °C, 6 h | S- or N-doping | Dialysis (3500 Da, Time n/a) | 4–5 | n/a | [175] |
Solar converters | 1.60 | 0.54 | 1.20 | Solvothermal | Jaggery syrup Urea | 140 °C, 2.5 h | N-doping | Centrifugation (12,000× g rpm, 30 min) | 9.5 | 9.8 | [176] |
Solar converters | 4.5 | 0.495 | 1.6 | Hydrothermal | Phloroglucinol | 200 °C, 9 h + 70 °C, 30 min | n/a | Dialysis (1000 Da, 12 h) | 1.74 | 40 | [177] |
Target/ Contaminant | Photocatalysis Mechanism | CQDs Synthesis Method | Modifications and Functionalization | Precursors | Reaction Conditions | Purification | QY (%) | Average Size (nm) | Degradation (%) | Degradation Time (min) | Ref. |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Rhodamine B Methylene blue | Oxidation by formation of holes and superoxide radical anions | Microwave assisted | N-doping | Citric acid 1,2-Phenylenediamine | 700 W, 7 min | Filtration and SEC | 39.2 | 2 | 70 | 150 | [114] |
Acid Blue | Formation of reactive oxide species (ROS) | Hydrothermal | N-doping | Grass | 180 °C, 2 h | Wash with distilled water | n/a | <10 | 100 (for all) | 30 | [178] |
Acid Red | 30 | ||||||||||
Eosin Y | 90 | ||||||||||
Eriochrome Black T | Immediate decomposition no radiation required | ||||||||||
Methyl orange | Immediate decomposition no radiation required | ||||||||||
Methylene blue | 90 | ||||||||||
Rhodamine B Methylene Blue | Oxidation by formation of holes and active oxygen/hydroxyl radicals | Hydrothermal | n/a | Palm powder | 200 °C, 7 h | Filtration with membrane filter (0.22 μm) Dialysis (500 Da membrane, 48 h) | 0.9 | 3.54 | 71.7 and 94.2, respectively | 45 (both) | [179] |
Methyl viologen | photoinduced electron transfer | Hydrothermal (for amorphous synthesis (a-)) | n/a | Citric acid (Cit) | 180 °C, 24 h | - | 1.0 a-Cit-CDs | 9–12 | 3.45 × 10−8 M s−1 | n/a | [180] |
Glucose (Glu) | 200 °C, 24 h | Centrifugation (n/a time) and Filtration | 1.8 a-Glu-CDs | 0.65 × 10−8 M s−1 | |||||||
Fructose (Fru) | 200 °C, 24 h | 0.3 a-Fru-CDs | 4.37 × 10−8 M s−1 | ||||||||
Pyrolytic (for graphitic synthesis (g-)) | Citric acid (Cit) | 220 °C, 48 h | Dialysis (1000 Da membrane, 24 h) | 1.2 g-Cit-CDs | 7–9 | 5.06 × 10−8 M s−1 | |||||
Glucose (Glu) | 220 °C, 48 h | 2.3 g-Glu-CDs | 2–7 | 1.07 × 10−8 M s−1 | |||||||
Fructose (Fru) | 220 °C, 48 h | 0.7 g-Fru-CDs | 0.5 μm–1.5 μm | 0.67 × 10−8 M s−1 | |||||||
Tetracycline Bisphenol A Rhodamine B | Direct hole oxidation reaction | Hydrothermal | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | 80 | 5 | 60 73 91.8 | 120 150 20 | [181] |
Rose bengal | Formation of singlet oxygen | Bottom-up condensation | P-doping | Pluronic F-68 | n/a | n/a | 31 | <21 | 86 | 180 | [182] |
CO2 | Reduction by accumulated electrons under the assistance of H+ | Microwave-assisted | N, S-doping | Citric acid Thiourea | 800 W, 7 min | Dialysis (MWCO n/a, 24 h) | n/a | 3.5 | n/a | 360 | [183] |
Tetracycline | Oxidation by formation of holes and superoxide radical anions | Hydrothermal | N-doping | Ammonium citrate Ethylenediamine | 200 °C, 5 h | Dialysis (1000 Da, 24 h) | n/a | 8 | 97 | 25 | [184] |
Crystal violet dye | Oxidation by formation of holes and photo-generated electrons | Hydrothermal and mixed-calcination | n/a | Ascorbic acid Glycol | 160 °C, 70 min | n/a | n/a | 4–9 | 70 | 300 | [185] |
Amoxicillin | Oxidation by formation of holes and hydroxyl radicals | Hydrothermal and calcination | potassium titanate (K2Ti6O13) | n/a | n/a | n/a | 80 | n/a | 100 | 90 | [186] |
Sulfamethazine | Oxidation by formation of holes, superoxide radical anions and photo-generated electrons | Calcination | N-doping | Citric acid Urea | 550 °C, 3 h | n/a | n/a | 2–5 | 97.3 | 50 | [187] |
Indigo carmine | Oxidation by formation of holes and photo-generated electrons | Solvothermal | N-doping | Aniline | 180 °C, 10 h | Centrifugation (10 000× g rpm, 5 min) Dialysis (3500 Da, 24 h) | 0.25 | 2.0 | 97 | 120 | [188] |
2-aminonaphthalene | 0.11 | 2.2 | |||||||||
2-anthracylamine | 0.28 | 2.6 | |||||||||
1-aminopyrene | 0.14 | 2.2 | |||||||||
Benzene p-xylene Toluene | CQDs/TiO2 nanocomposites improved interfacial charge transfer; increased light absorption; narrower bandgap | Pyrolysis | CQDs/TiO2 nanocomposites | Citric acid | 180 ℃, 40 h | n/a | n/a | 2.4 | 31 64 99 | 140 | [189] |
Application | Target | Targeting Ligands | Receptor/Target | CQDs Synthesis Method | Precursors | Reaction Conditions | Modifications and Functionalization | Purification | Average Size (nm) | QY (%) | Ref. |
Antimicrobial | Escherichia coli (E. coli) Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) | n/a | n/a | Pyrolysis | Aloe-Vera extract | 190 °C, 20 min | n/a | Dialysis (300 Da, Time n/a) | 6–8 | 12.3 | [51] |
Bacteria identification | Escherichia coli (E. coli) Desulfovibrio desulfuricans (D. desulfuricans) Staphylococcus sciuri (S. sciuri) Listeria monocytogenes (L. monocytogenes) Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) | 3-Aminophenylboronic acid vancomycin hydrochloride polymyxin B sulfate | cis-diol (D)-Ala-(D)-Ala peptide LPS | Hydrothermal | Ammonium citrate dibasic 3-Aminophenylboronic acid vancomycin hydrochloride polymyxin B sulfate | 180 °C, 4 h | 3-Aminophenylboronic acid vancomycin hydrochloride polymyxin B sulfate hybridized | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 15 min) Dialysis (1000 Da, overnight) | 3–6 | n/a | [118] |
Antimicrobial | Escherichia coli Bacillus subtilis | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | Polyvinylpyrrolidone | 200 °C, 6 h | N-doping | Filtration with a cylinder filtration membrane filter (0.22 μm) Centrifugation (8000× g rpm, 15 min) | 6.5 | 6 | [190] |
Poly (sodium- 4styrene sulfonate) | S-doping | 5 | 9.5 | ||||||||
Antimicrobial | E. coli S. aureus AREC KREC | n/a | n/a | Smoking | Cigarette | Cigarette smoke of 200 cigarettes was dissolved into 1 L deionized water | n/a | Dialysis (1000 Da, Time n/a) | 5.4 | n/a | [191] |
Antimicrobial | S. aureus Bacillus subtilis Bacillus sp. WL-6 E. coli ampicillin-resistant E. coli Rhizoctonia Solani Pyricularia Grisea | n/a | Bacterial and fungal DNA/RNA | Electrochemical | Vitamin C | 0.1 A direct current (DC) power, 3 weeks | n/a | Dialysis (500 Da, Time n/a) | 5 | 30 | [192] |
Antiviral | HCoV229E | Boronic acid | S-receptor | Hydrothermal | Citric acid Ethylenediamine | Temperature: n/a, 5 h | Boronic acid functionalization (Click chemistry) | Centrifugation Dialysis (MWCO n/a, 24 h) | 4.5 | 40 | [193] |
Antiviral | Japanese encephalitis Zika Dengue Porcine parvovirus Adenovirus-associated virus | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | Benzoxazine monomers (BZM) | 180 °C, 12 h | n/a | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 10 min) Dialysis (MWCO n/a, Time n/a) | 4.4 | 13.1 | [194] |
Antiviral | Porcine reproductive Respiratory syndrome virus (PRRSV) | Glycyrrhizic acid | n/a | Hydrothermal | Glycyrrhizic acid | 180 °C, 7 h | n/a | Centrifugation (10,000× g rpm, 10 min) Dialysis (14,000 Da, 8 h) | 11.4 | 1.41 | [195] |
Antiviral | White spot syndrome virus (WSSV) | n/a | n/a | n/a | Polyamine | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [196] |
Antimicrobial | Bacillus subtilis | n/a | n/a | Reflux in concentrated nitric acid | Carbon nano-powders | Temp (°C) n/a, 48 h | EDA: EDA-CDots | Dialysis (500 Da, 48 h) Centrifugation (1000× g, time n/a) | 4–5 | 20 | [81] |
EPA: EPA-CDots | 4–5 | 20 | |||||||||
PEI1200: PEI1200-CDots | 4–6 | 12 | |||||||||
PEI600: PEI600-CDots | n/a | n/a | |||||||||
Hydrothermal | Citric acid PEI1200 | n/a | PEI1200/CA-CDots-1 PEI1200/CA-CDots-2 PEI1200/CA-CDots-3 | n/a | 10 | 60 | |||||
Antimicrobial | Fusarium oxysporum S. aureus P. aeruginosa B. subtilis E. coli MCF-7 HepG2 cells | n/a | n/a | Microwave-assisted | Pomegranate extract Watermelon extract PEG 200 | Microwave radiation for 2 min at the interval of 10 s each | Polymer passivation | n/a | 1–5 | n/a | [131] |
Antibacterial | Staphyloccocus aureus Escherichia coli | Polyurethane (PU) | n/a | Swell encapsulation-shrink method (hCQDss/PU) | Pluronic F-68 | ambient temperature, 48 h | n/a | n/a | n/a | n/a | [182] |
Antiviral | avian leukosis virus subgroup J (ALV-J) | gp85 protein | n/a | Hydrothermal | Humic acid polytetrafluoroethylene | 180 °C, 5 h | gp85 protein | Centrifugation (3000× g rpm, 15 min) Dialysis (1000 Da, 48 h) Centrifugation (12,000× g rpm, 15 min) | 3–5 | n/a | [197] |
Antiviral | enterovirus 71 (EV71) | curcumin | ROS generation PGE2 production translation of EV71- and EV71-induced eIF4G cleavage phosphorylated p38 kinase | Dry-carbonization in muffle furnace | Curcumin | 120 °C, 2 h (Cur-CQDs-120) | n/a | Centrifugation (35,000× g, 1 h) Dialysis in sodium chloride solution (0.5–1 kDa, 5 h) Dialysis in ultrapure water solution (0.5–1 kDa, 18 h) | 4.2 | <0.1 | [198] |
150 °C, 2 h (Cur-CQDs-150) | 4.5 | ||||||||||
180 °C, 2 h (Cur-CQDs-180) | 4.8 | ||||||||||
210 °C, 2 h (Cur-CQDs-210) | 5.2 | ||||||||||
Antimicrobial | methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) Ampicillin-resistant Escherichia coli | n/a | Negative charge of bacterial membranes DNA | Hydrothermal | bis-quaternary ammonium salt (BQAS) | 200 °C, 12 h | N-doping | Dialysis (500 Da, 24 h) | 2.15 | n/a | [199] |
Antimicrobial | methicillin-sensitive Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 6538) methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC 4300) Escherichia coli (ATCC 25922) Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC 49134) Bacillus cereus (ATCC 14579) | n/a | n/a | Hydrothermal | polyethyleneimine citric acid | 250 ºC, 4 h | N-doping | Dialysis (≥12,000 Da, 24 h) | 70.2, 32.2, 11.5 | PEI:CA ratio (1:0.5) –31 (1:1)–53 (1:2)–7.6 | [138] |
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Sousa, H.B.A.; Martins, C.S.M.; Prior, J.A.V. You Don’t Learn That in School: An Updated Practical Guide to Carbon Quantum Dots. Nanomaterials 2021, 11, 611. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11030611
Sousa HBA, Martins CSM, Prior JAV. You Don’t Learn That in School: An Updated Practical Guide to Carbon Quantum Dots. Nanomaterials. 2021; 11(3):611. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11030611
Chicago/Turabian StyleSousa, Helena B. A., Catarina S. M. Martins, and João A. V. Prior. 2021. "You Don’t Learn That in School: An Updated Practical Guide to Carbon Quantum Dots" Nanomaterials 11, no. 3: 611. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano11030611