Casta Meretrix: The Paradox of the Christian Church Through History

The foundational paradox of the Christian Church—its existence as both a divine institution and a human enterprise—has served as a central preoccupation for theologians, historians, and jurists for two millennia. This Special Issue of Religions, titled Casta Meretrix: The Paradox of the Christian Church Through History, seeks to interrogate this tension through a diverse array of scholarly lenses. The title itself, evoking the patristic motif of the “chaste harlot,” serves as the thematic anchor for this volume. It invites us to consider how the Church has navigated its sacred mission amid the inevitable fallibility of its human governance, and how these internal contradictions have often acted not as points of friction but as creative forces in shaping Christian identity. The seven contributions gathered here traverse the boundaries of theological speculation, jurisdictional conflict, and social history, offering a nuanced map of the ecclesial landscape from the medieval period to the dawn of modernity.

The volume opens with a profound theological grounding provided by John Anthony Berry, who explores the Casta Meretrix motif through the sophisticated ecclesiology of Hans Urs von Balthasar. By revisiting biblical typologies—from Rahab to Tamar—Berry illustrates how the Church’s identity is inextricably tied to recognising its own sinfulness as the very locus of divine redemption. This theological paradox finds a compelling literary counterpart in Jonathan Farrugia’s study of Dante Alighieri. Farrugia demonstrates how the Florentine poet embodied the ‘ecclesial paradox’ by offering scathing critiques of a corrupt hierarchy while maintaining a steadfast, reverent devotion to the Petrine office. Together, these papers remind us that the Church’s history is best understood not as a linear progression of sanctity, but as a perpetual, often agonising, dialogue between the inherent sacred nature and the actual sinfulness of the faithful.

The tension between spiritual authority and temporal power is further examined through specific historical case studies that highlight the Church’s role in the political and legal spheres. Jordan Sant’s analysis of Cesare Borgia offers a provocative look at the Renaissance papacy, extending the concept of the ‘two-faced Janus’ to the figure of the Church’s secular arm. Here, the paradox is manifest in the militarisation of a religious institution and the blurred lines between dynastic ambition and ecclesiastical duty. This theme of institutional friction is mirrored in the work of Nicholas Joseph Doublet, who investigates the jurisdictional struggles in 17th-century Malta. By detailing the clashes between the Bishop and the Grand Masters of the Order of St John, Doublet illustrates how the implementation of the Council of Trent’s reforms became a catalyst for disputes over ecclesiastical immunities, revealing the complex legal manoeuvring required to balance spiritual and temporal sovereignty.

Beyond high politics and theology, the volume also addresses the material and social dimensions of the ecclesial experience. Matthias Ebejer introduces the concept of ‘absent-presence,’ exploring how the Order of St. John utilised religious materiality—relics, sacred spaces, and kinetic rituals—to mediate divine agency during the Counter-Reformation. This paradox of achieving spiritual transcendence through tangible objects underscores the deeply sacramental nature of the Christian tradition. Turning to the social sphere, Petra Caruana Dingli provides a critical overview of the bizzoche and tertiaries in early modern Malta. Her research uncovers the semi-religious lifestyles of women who navigated the spaces between lay society and monastic structures, highlighting the diverse ways in which the Christian experience was lived on the margins of official institutional frameworks. Finally, Martin Micallef examines how hagiography and the cult of St Publius were employed in the 18th century to foster a Maltese national identity, showing how religious memory can be a potent tool for social and cultural cohesion.

Ultimately, this Special Issue suggests that the ‘paradox’ of the Church is not a problem to be solved, but rather a reality to be understood and embraced. By documenting these moments of both frailty and conflict, as well as devotion and institutional evolution, the contributors offer more than just a historical record, but somewhat a mirror for the contemporary Church as it faces its own internal and external challenges. The lessons of the past—of reconciliation following schism, and of holiness persisting within a flawed human framework—serve as a call to reflection. It is our hope that this volume will serve as a valuable resource for historians and theologians alike, fostering a deeper appreciation of the universal Church’s multifaceted nature and informing current efforts toward a more cooperative and inclusive future.