Zhuangzi’s Qi-Emotion Theory and Emotional Well-Being: Integrating Daoist Philosophy with Neo-Phenomenology of Atmosphere

Abstract

Zhuangzi, a seminal figure in ancient Chinese philosophy, offers profound insights into emotional well-being through his Qi-emotion theory. This paper examines Zhuangzi’s approach to emotional well-being by exploring the interplay between Qi (vital energy), atmosphere, and emotions. By drawing comparative perspectives from Neo-Phenomenology’s concept of atmosphere and the Chinese classical concept of Qi-feeling, the study challenges traditional views that emotions are solely internal phenomena. Instead, it proposes that emotions are field-like, arising from dynamic interactions between individuals and their environments. Through an in-depth analysis of Zhuangzi’s philosophy, particularly his methods of self-cultivation such as “fasting the mind” (xin zhai 心齋) and non-action (wu wei 無爲), this paper illustrates how aligning oneself with the Dao (the Way 道) and harmonizing Qi can lead to emotional balance and spiritual freedom. The study integrates Eastern and Western philosophical traditions, highlighting the significance of enlightened mind, embodiment, and atmospheric resonance in achieving emotional well-being. The findings suggest that Zhuangzi’s Qi-emotion theory provides valuable insights for contemporary philosophical practice and therapy by emphasizing the unity of mind, body, and environment. By fostering harmony with the natural world and transcending personal attachments, individuals can attain a state of inner peace and holistic well-being.

1. Introduction

In the context of philosophical therapy, Zhuangzi’s ideas offer valuable insights into managing emotional well-being. His philosophy encourages individuals to transcend personal attachments and societal expectations, aligning themselves with the Dao—the fundamental principle underlying the universe. By embracing the flow of life and cultivating a perspective that transcends conventional distinctions, Zhuangzi proposes a path toward inner peace and harmony.

This paper examines Zhuangzi’s approach to emotional well-being through the lens of his philosophy of Qi (vital energy) and its interplay with emotions. By exploring the concepts of “atmosphere” and “Qi-feeling,” we propose that emotional responses should be understood not merely as internal projections but as emergent phenomena arising from the resonant interplay between inner affective states and the surrounding environmental field. In this view, emotions are co-constituted through the dynamic coupling of the self and the world, manifesting as patterns of mutual attunement rather than isolated, internally generated experiences. Through this exploration, we aim to contribute Daoist insights into emotional well-being, offering alternative approaches to cultivating emotional well-being in contemporary philosophical practice.

This paper centers on emotional well-being, a significant theme in both Eastern and Western philosophical traditions, providing a theoretical foundation for discussions on emotional well-being.1 The core questions we address are: Is emotion merely confined to the internal self? How emotions arise from the mutual resonance between internal states and external atmospheres? How can emotional well-being be cultivated by establishing a connection between the internal and external? By analyzing the generation and presentation of emotions through the Western concept of “atmosphere” and the traditional Chinese concepts of “Qi” and “Qi-feeling” (the sensory experience of Qi’s movement), we examine the relationship between Zhuangzi’s philosophy of Qi and emotion. We discuss his methods of cultivating Qi, spiritual practice, and emotional healing, offering Daoist wisdom to contribute to contemporary philosophical practice.

The paper proceeds as follows: First, we outline the close connection between philosophical practice and emotional well-being, highlighting the significance of emotions as essential factors for a flourishing life (Section 2). Emotions play dual roles in well-being; positive emotions like love and awe contribute intrinsic value, while emotional self-control and the management of negative emotions are essential for personal flourishing. Second, we clarify four interrelated core concepts—Qi, Atmosphere, Qi-feeling, and Affect—that underpin the subsequent analysis, establishing a conceptual framework to transcend the traditional internal-external dichotomy of emotions (Section 3). Third, we explore the generation of emotions from a comparative philosophical perspective, utilizing the Neo-Phenomenology concept of “atmosphere” and the Chinese classical concept of “Qi-feeling,” challenging the traditional view that emotions are projected solely from the inside out. For instance, when engaging with a sad painting, is the sadness in the viewer or inherent in the painting? Philosophers like Bouwsma (1950), drawing on Wittgenstein’s analysis of emotional expression, argue that emotions can be perceived as permeating a situation. Similarly, the artist’s work can create an atmosphere in which emotion is shared among artist, artwork, and audience. This paper emphasizes the cosmological thinking of “focus-field” in Eastern philosophy, asserting that emotional experience arises not solely from inner projection but through the reciprocal resonance between internal affect and the external environment (Section 4). Finally, we apply Zhuangzi’s philosophical discussions on emotional transcendence, advocating for a method of self-cultivation with a “cosmic perspective” to achieve spiritual freedom and harmony (Section 5).

2. Philosophical Practice and Emotional Well-Being

2.1. Philosophical Practice: A Renewed Paradigm in Philosophical Research

Philosophical practice, also known as philosophical counseling or therapy, involves applying philosophical principles, concepts, and methods to daily life to foster critical thinking and enhance insight, thereby addressing and resolving complex issues encountered in personal development (Ding et al. 2024c, 2025a; Ding and Yu 2022; Schuster 1999). The National Philosophical Counseling Association (NPCA) lists daily problems that philosophical consultants can help address, such as moral dilemmas, value conflicts, end-of-life issues, career challenges, marital problems, and religious and racial issues (National Philosophical Counseling Association n.d.). Philosophical theories are applied to areas such as spiritual cultivation, desire management, techniques of self-cultivation, and emotional well-being.

Modern psychotherapy theories, originating predominantly within Western middle-class populations, face ongoing debates regarding their cross-cultural applicability in diverse sociocultural contexts (Kirmayer 2007; Kirmayer and Swartz 2013). The American Psychological Association advocates for more inclusive and culturally diverse psychotherapeutic approaches, emphasizing the necessity of integrating individuals’ cultural and social backgrounds to develop effective therapeutic strategies (American Psychological Association 2017).

In response to these challenges, both Eastern and Western practitioners are increasingly incorporating cultural resources from diverse traditions into their therapeutic practices. For instance, Morita Therapy, developed by Shoma Morita (1874–1938), a Japanese psychiatrist and philosopher influenced by Zen Buddhism, emphasizes the acceptance of feelings rather than their immediate alteration. This approach contrasts with Western methods like Albert Ellis’s Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT), which focuses on changing maladaptive thought patterns to alter emotional responses. Morita Therapy prioritizes mindfulness and acceptance over cognitive restructuring, offering a distinct cultural perspective on managing emotional distress (Reynolds 1980).2 These examples underscore the increasing cross-pollination of ideas between Eastern and Western psychotherapies, reflecting a broader trend of integrating diverse cultural insights into therapeutic practice.

Philosophical therapy, inspired by psychotherapeutic theories and techniques, emerged prominently in Europe during the 1980s. Also known as “philosophical counseling,” “philosophical practice,” or “clinical philosophy,” it applies philosophical theories and methods to guide individuals through daily problems and uncertainties. The ultimate goal is to promote self-understanding, inner peace, and profound happiness. As a professional field, philosophical practice employs philosophical insights, methods, and dialogue to help individuals explore and resolve intellectual, emotional, and existential dilemmas, enhancing mental well-being through critical thinking, ethical reflection, and self-examination. Notably, some psychotherapists, such as Albert Ellis with his REBT, have incorporated philosophical methods to foster a philosophical way of life in clients,3 resembling Stoic principles (Ellis and Harper 1975).

Since German philosopher Gerd B. Achenbach founded the world’s first philosophical counseling institution, philosophical practice has spread globally, with many countries establishing specialized agencies and societies. This development marks a renewed recognition of philosophy’s practical applications beyond academic settings. Historically, philosophical practice has roots in ancient traditions, such as those of the Stoics and Epicureans, whose work was both theoretical and therapeutic, aimed at guiding individuals toward a virtuous and fulfilling life (Hadot 1995). Therefore, the contemporary movement in philosophical therapy represents a return to philosophy’s original role as a practical endeavor intertwined with daily life.

2.2. Philosophy as Therapy: Cultivating Emotional Balance for Well-Being

In recent years, philosophical practice has focused on integrating Eastern and Western philosophical wisdom to promote human well-being, refining research methods and content. Topics include desire management, emotional well-being, moral order, belief dilemmas, loss of meaning, psychological trauma, life and death issues, interpersonal relationships, and nihilism. By bridging philosophical theory and lived experience, philosophical practice guides individuals toward physical and mental integration, personal growth, and community engagement.

The embrace of philosophy as a therapeutic practice represents a significant shift in contemporary philosophical research. Historically, philosophers in ancient Greece, Rome, India, and China have played consultative and therapeutic roles (Hadot 1995; Nussbaum 1994). Pierre Hadot emphasized that philosophy’s function lies in guiding individuals toward wisdom through “spiritual exercises” (Hadot 1995). Contemporary philosophical counseling draws inspiration from thinkers such as Hegel, Buber, Heidegger, Sartre, and Wittgenstein (Robertson 1998), while Kierkegaard’s ideas on human freedom have been noted for their relevance to philosophical counseling (Spivak 2004). Similarly, the Confucian tradition emphasizes “virtue cultivation” and “spiritual exercises,” moving from the ethical to the cosmic realm. Confucianism engages with concrete life, pursuing the therapeutic character of “sanctifying the secular” (Fingarette 1972).

In both Eastern and Western philosophies, emotions play a central role in moral behavior and personal development. Hellenistic philosophers focused on transforming beliefs and desires to elevate the inner world (Nussbaum 1994), emphasizing emotions like anger, fear, love, and compassion. Emotions are fundamental to human expression and moral motivation. For example, Adam Smith elucidated the roots of justice and benevolence through the principle of sympathy (Smith [1759] 2002). Habermas noted that emotional insensitivity can lead to moral blindness, resulting from “a lack of capacity for feeling, a kind of emotional insensitivity to the suffering of fragile lives entitled to preserve personal and bodily integrity” (Müller-Doohm 2016, p. 421).

However, negative emotions such as boredom, anxiety, anger, and nihilism present challenges to individual and societal well-being. Deleuze discussed how love can mask hatred (Deleuze 1983), while modern societies grapple with anger permeating politics and public discourse. Emotional chaos can lead to affective disorders. How can emotions break free from their limitations to achieve a state of peace and health? Philosophy offers therapeutic qualities; Nussbaum argued that “emotions can be reliably created and removed by speech and argument” (Nussbaum 1994, p. 83). Both Western and classical Chinese philosophies advocate for maintaining emotions at a moderate level to foster a flourishing life.

Emotional well-being aims to provide a balance to emotions, keeping states like fear, anger, love, and sadness at a moderate level—an attitude endorsed by Aristotle and echoed in classical Chinese philosophy. By cultivating self-awareness and employing philosophical techniques, individuals can manage their emotional states, leading to greater well-being and harmony in both personal and public spheres.

3. Defining Core Concepts: Qi, Atmosphere, Qi-Feeling, and Affect

Building on the discussion of philosophical practice’s therapeutic potential and the cross-cultural dialogue between Eastern and Western traditions, a clear and shared conceptual foundation is essential to unpack the relational nature of emotions. As this study aims to bridge Daoist Qi philosophy and Neo-Phenomenology’s theory of atmosphere to re-examine emotional well-being, we first clarify four interrelated core concepts—Qi, Atmosphere, Qi-feeling, and Affect—that underpin the subsequent comparative analysis. By integrating the “focus-field” thinking inherent in both traditions, these concepts illuminate how emotions arise from dynamic interactions between individuals and their environments, laying the groundwork for exploring emotion generation and Zhuangzi’s Qi-emotion theory. The definitions of important concepts are as follows.

Qi: Qi refers to the fundamental life force or cosmic energy that permeates and flows through all things in the universe. It is both the basic constituent of matter and the source of the generation and transformation of all phenomena. This concept shares similarities with Anaximenes’ notion of pneuma in ancient Greek philosophy. Anaximenes considered pneuma (air or breath) as the essential substance from which all things originate, highlighting the vital role of air as the life-giving principle. Similarly, Qi encompasses not only physical air but also an energetic force that integrates cosmological, physiological, and metaphysical dimensions (Li 2012). While both concepts signify a pervasive and dynamic life force, Qi in Chinese thought embodies a more holistic and encompassing cosmic energy compared to the relatively material aspect of pneuma.4

Qi has several meanings:

(1) Natural Yin-Yang Qi: The dynamic interplay of Yin and Yang energies in nature. For example, “When Yang is suppressed and cannot emerge, and Yin is constrained and cannot evaporate, earthquakes occur 陽伏而不能出, 陰迫而不能蒸, 於是有地震” (Guoyu 國語).

(2) Seasonal Qi: The cyclical energies associated with seasons. “In this month, the heavenly Qi descends, the earthly Qi rises; heaven and earth harmonize, and grasses and trees sprout 是月也, 天氣下降, 地氣上騰, 天地和同, 草木萌動” (Book of Rites, “Monthly Ordinances 月令”).

(3) Vital Qi: The life force within living beings. “In infants, the Qi is concentrated and the will unified, reaching utmost harmony 其在嬰孩, 氣專志一, 和之至也” (Liezi 列子).

(4) Qi of Mind and Nature: The vital energy connected to mental and moral qualities. “I understand words; I am skilled in nurturing my vast, flowing passion-nature 我知言, 我善養吾浩然之氣” (The Book of Mencius 孟子).

(5) Essence Qi and Soul Qi: The spiritual aspects of Qi, including the soul (Hun 魂) and corporeal soul (Po 魄). “The soul refers to continuous movement; the corporeal soul refers to urgency, clinging closely to a person 魂者, 沄也, 猶沄沄行不休也; 魄者, 迫也, 猶迫迫然著於人也” (Baihu Tong 白虎通).

(6) Ungraspable Wandering Qi: The transcendent aspect of Qi beyond physical grasp. “Such men can never trek across the Kunlun, can never wander in the Great Void 是以不過乎崑崙, 不遊乎太虛” (Zhuangzi 2013: “Knowledge Wandered North 知北遊”, p. 185).

Qi encompasses philosophical, physical, physiological, psychological, and ethical aspects (Li 2012, pp. 38–48), characterized by universal vitality, morality, intuition, and pre-logicality (Zeng 2004). All things derive from one Qi; the world is a vast Qi field where life resonates through Qi, determining life’s orderly rhythm.

Atmosphere: Atmosphere describes the emotional ambiance of an environment, affecting perception and feelings, and transcending physical properties (Schmitz 2012, pp. 74–76). In Heidegger’s philosophy, the concept of “Being-in-the-world” provides a foundation for understanding atmosphere as a meaningful domain where individuals interact with their surroundings (Heidegger 1962). Atmosphere constitutes part of the “situation,” an ineffable emotional ambiance experienced by individuals.

Qi-feeling: Ancient Chinese philosophy posits the “circulation of one Qi 一氣流通” as the ontological basis for mutual resonance among all things. From the concept of Qi-type sympathetic response, emotion is not generated unilaterally but shared through resonance between humans and objects via Qi. For example, in the Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons (Wenxin Diaolong 文心雕龍), it is stated: “Emotions and Qi go together 情與氣偕”; “Mountains rise in layers, waters surround; sights shift, the heart responds, inhaling and exhaling 山遝水匝, 樹雜雲合. 目既往還, 心亦吐納.”

Affect: As a philosophical concept, “affect” originated with Spinoza, described as a process of stimulus-response (Spinoza 1998, p. 145). Affect refers to the physiological and emotional responses arising from body-environment interaction, involving pre-conscious processing of stimuli. Ruth Leys (2011) provides an analysis and critique of the concept’s definitions and applications. Brian Massumi distinguishes between “emotion” (personal, within the self) and “affect” (external, occurring between subjects) (Massumi 1995). Affect is a state where body and mind associate with sensation and emotion, manifesting first bodily, then reaching emotional integration through resonance. It originates from interactions within the surrounding field, solidifying into recognizable emotions through dynamic development.

These clarified concepts—Qi as the cosmic unifying force, Atmosphere as the affective environmental field, Qi-feeling as the resonant perception of Qi, and Affect as the dynamic interaction among the mental, bodily, and environmental realms—establish a coherent analytical framework for transcending the traditional internal-external dichotomy of emotions. With this conceptual groundwork in place, we now turn to a comparative philosophical exploration of emotion generation, examining how Neo-Phenomenology’s notion of Atmosphere and Chinese classical Qi-feeling jointly reveal emotions as field-like, co-constituted phenomena, one that aligns with Zhuangzi’s holistic vision of emotional well-being.

4. Comparative Perspectives on Emotion Generation: From Atmosphere to Qi-Feeling

Understanding emotions involves two primary perspectives: projection from the inside out and projection from the outside in. Traditionally, since Aristotle, emotions have been studied as internal phenomena originating within the individual, attributed to intentional states or neural activities (Dixon 2003; Damasio 1994; LeDoux 1996). This view, endorsed by thinkers like Richardson, Sterne, Diderot, and Rousseau, often isolates subject and object, leading to a dualistic approach that can devalue emotions. For instance, Stoicism regards emotions as forms of enslavement (Graver 2007), while Thomas Aquinas sees them as suffering resulting from sensory pursuits (Kenny 1993).

The debate regarding the relationship between internal and external factors in emotional experience has evolved over several centuries, profoundly influencing our understanding of human emotions and their connection to the body, with key contributions from both philosophical and psychological traditions. Early theories, such as Descartes’ mind–body dualism, have given way to more integrated approaches, notably those of John Dewey and Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Recent thinkers like Thomas Fuchs have expanded these ideas, proposing alternative frameworks that dissolve the traditional mind–body dualism. They advocate for a more integrated view of emotional experience, rejecting rigid internal-external boundaries in favor of a dynamic perspective that sees emotion as a relational phenomenon (Fuchs and Koch 2014).

Dewey’s pragmatism is key to this shift, rejecting the dualism of mind and body. He argues that emotions are not isolated internal states but embodied responses to external stimuli, shaped by an ongoing interaction with the environment. This view aligns with his broader philosophy of experience, where emotions are part of an organism’s active engagement with the world, not passive reactions. For Dewey, emotional experiences emerge from dynamic interactions between the organism and its surroundings. Emotional experience is not something that we possess; rather, it is something that occurs through our active engagement with the world (Dewey and Bentley 1949).

Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology further critiques Cartesian dualism by emphasizing that the body is not a passive receptor of sensory data but an active participant in shaping emotion and perception. His view rejects the separation of mental and physical states, proposing that emotions are embodied experiences that arise through our interaction with the world. For Merleau-Ponty, emotion is not a detached mental state but a lived experience, deeply intertwined with perception and action (Merleau-Ponty 2021, p. 219).

A theoretical shift emerged with Rudolf Otto’s interpretation of the “Numinous”—a terrifying and sublime force that encompasses individuals, blurring the boundary between inner and outer worlds (Otto 1923). Hermann Schmitz further developed this idea, proposing that emotions are external, spatial phenomena or “atmospheres” that envelop individuals (Schmitz 2012). Schmitz’s ontological approach, which emphasizes linguistic reification (e.g., Lieb and Klime), simplifies the complex relationship between the body, emotion, and the environment. Schmitz’s model externalizes emotions, viewing them as projections from the outside, thus reinforcing and highlighting the influence of external factors, such as climate or environment, on emotions. This perspective offers a new theoretical lens for understanding emotional experiences. Similarly, Chinese classical philosophy introduces the concept of “Qi-feeling,” emphasizing that emotional responses are not merely products of internal projection but as emergent phenomena arising from the resonant interplay between inner affective states and the surrounding environmental field. This perspective situates affect within “the overall vision of the dynamic universe”, where inner sentiments and external conditions co-evolve in mutual attunement.

4.1. Emotion Generation in Atmosphere and Affect Theory

Schmitz challenges the traditional view by asserting that “we project emotions from the outside in” (Schmitz 2012, p. 9). He distinguishes between emotions themselves and the state of emotional tremors, conceptualizing emotions as atmospheres—indeterminate and pervasive fields in which people are immersed (Schmitz 1997). Using the term “Klima” (climate), he illustrates how emotions and atmospheres are inseparable; for example, gloomy weather can evoke a mood of melancholy that seems indistinct from the atmosphere itself.5

Schmitz introduces the concept of the “Leib” (lived body), emphasizing the holistic, subjective body imbued with genuine sensations (Schmitz 2012). Emotions are not merely internal states but bodily experiences that seize us through “emotional tremors.” Our fundamental embodiment gives rise to experiences of life, death, pain, excitement, love, and despair. The climate-like atmosphere permeates the body, becoming the dominant tone of our experiential field. Extending this idea, Schmitz posits emotions as spatial phenomena: “atmospheres poured into space and forces that seize the body” (Wang 2023). He uses “air” as an analogy, suggesting that atmosphere is boundless and forms the unconscious backdrop of our bodily sensations (Schmitz 2012). Teresa Brennan similarly discusses how affects can be transmitted through environmental factors, equating “affect” with “air”: we can “feel the atmosphere” upon entering a room (Brennan 2004, p. 1). Gernot Böhme identifies air as “the affective power of sensation,” a medium connecting the environment and the individual’s bodily sensory state (Böhme 1993).

The phenomenological perspective of “relationality” allows for a deeper understanding of how atmosphere and ambience generate emotions. Peter Zumthor explores how architects create atmospheric spaces through design elements that evoke emotional responses (Zumthor 2006). Böhme further develops “atmospheric aesthetics,” focusing on the situational context of human existence and proposing that atmosphere is the perceivable presence of something in space, a shared reality of perceiver and perceived (Böhme 2016). Atmosphere functions as an intermediary between situational context and objective environment, an immersive influence that resists dissection.6

In essence, atmosphere can be conceptualized as a dynamic, relational field that transcends spatial and temporal boundaries. This view aligns with the concept of Qi in Chinese philosophy, where Qi is the vital life force flowing through all things, linking the physical and metaphysical realms (Li 2012). Both atmosphere and Qi share the characteristic of interpenetration, defying reductionist perspectives that isolate elements into discrete components. They are pervasive forces shaping and being shaped by individuals and their environments.

This permeation underscores the symbiotic relationship between individuals and their surroundings. Human experience is an ongoing transaction, marked by the fluid exchange of energy, emotion, and meaning. Natural atmospheres—wind, landscape, Qi-feeling—penetrate us, coloring our affects, while our personal experiences resonate in return. Böhme terms this interaction “communication,” where things express themselves and become present through mutual action between self-presentation and perception (Böhme 2016).

To further illustrate emotion generation, analyzing the mechanism of “affect” is crucial. Spinoza conceptualized affect as a stimulus-response process, where the human body is acted upon by external bodies (Spinoza 1998). We are constantly influenced by external causes, leading to bodily sensations that give rise to emotions. This perspective emphasizes that emotion is born from bodily sensory experience, always in contact with the external world.

In this framework, the penetration and coloring by atmosphere encompass the entirety of emotional effects entering our experience. “Scenery” becomes “affective scenery.” Deleuze, referencing Jean Epstein’s comments on Joris Ivens’ documentaries Rain (1929) and Bridge (1928), illustrates how images like rain carry lyrical and abstract significance. Immersed in such imagery, our bodies and souls intertwine, merging in the sympathetic resonance of aesthetic affect, creating new emotional spatial structures (Deleuze 1986).

The body, in these moments, resembles a “dream body” where scene and emotion merge seamlessly. This “dispatch” or “transcendence” generates a layered experience, not limited to the physical landscape but extending into an emotional and spiritual dimension.

4.2. Emotion Generation in Chinese Classical Qi Philosophy

Chinese Qi philosophy shares significant affinities with Neo-phenomenology’s concept of atmosphere. Qi emphasizes “emotionality with humans as subjects” and pertains to “an atmosphere related to people as a whole,” focusing on “the moving energy as the basis of life” (Onozawa et al. 2014, pp. 3–4).

In certain strands of traditional Chinese philosophy, conceptions of emotion resist strict “internalism.” A canonical formulation already gestures beyond the confines of a privatized affective model: “Intention is in the mind; speech expresses it as poetry; emotion stirs inside and takes shape in words 在心爲志, 發言爲詩, 情動於中而形於言” (Mao 2018, p. 1). Here, affect is not simply an inner datum but something that acquires determinate form through its outward articulation.

This relational conception is further elaborated in Mencius’s analysis of the heart–mind and the “sprouts” of virtue. While Mencius invokes “internality” to designate the source of benevolence and the moral orientation intrinsic to human nature, this internality is not equivalent to an introspective domain insulated from the world. Rather, it denotes Heaven-endowed capacities of responsiveness—dispositional orientations that are both innate and world-engaged. These capacities unfold and acquire moral salience only within concrete relational and situational contexts.7

Mencius further emphasizes the porous and developmental character of these affective capacities. They can be cultivated, distorted, or depleted through ritual practice, habitual comportment, environmental conditions, and the quality of one’s vital Qi (hao ran zhi Qi 浩然之氣). Hence, internality itself is not a static locus but a field of interaction constantly modulated by the external world. The heart–mind, as Mencius conceives it, is responsive, attuned, and open to atmospheric influences rather than autonomous or self-sufficient.

Accordingly, while some views treat emotions as primarily internal reactions, Mencius’s model supports a more robust interactionism: emotions are co-constituted through the dynamic resonance of inwardly rooted capacities and outward, relational fields of significance. On this reading, affective life is the emergent outcome of a mutually implicating process in which endowed tendencies are actualized—and normatively assessed—within the situations that call them forth.

Ulteriorly, the philosophy of the body also challenges the notion that emotions originate solely from the heart, It places greater emphasis on the external responses of emotions. Lin (2022) observes that as early as the preface to the Book of Songs, emotion was symbolically associated with “wind”: “The wind moves them, and the teaching transforms them 風以動之, 教以化之”. Here, “wind” signifies both material and spiritual catalysts affecting emotions, suggesting that external forces play a crucial role in emotional experiences.

“Wind” and “Qi” are essentially synonymous in this context. Japanese sinologist Chujo Akatsuka traced the origin of “Qi” to wind and earth, stemming from ancient worship practices (X. Li 2005, p. 98). Zhuangzi stated: “The Great Clod belches out breath [Qi], and its name is wind 夫大塊噫氣, 其名爲風” (Zhuangzi 2013: “Discussion on Making All Things Equal 齊物論”, p. 7). Similarly, the Huainanzi 淮南子 notes, “The wind rises, clouds surge; nothing fails to respond 風興雲蒸, 事無不應” (Chen 2012, p. 3), indicating the responsive effects of wind and Qi. Ogawa (1986) explored the Chinese term “scenery,” associating it with “wind objects” or “scene Qi,” where humans resonate with Qi to form an “emotion-scenery” relationship (Gong 2014, p. 605).

The association between “soul” and “breath” further illustrates this connection. In many cultures, breath signifies life; at death, one “expires.” In Greek philosophy, both pneuma and psyche are linked to breath and air—pneuma meaning “air in motion, breath, wind,” and psyche originally meaning “breath of life” but commonly translated as “spirit” or “soul” (Barnes 1987). This parallels the concept of Qi as a vital force interconnecting the material and spiritual realms.8

Lewis (2006, pp. 20–21) considers the human body, from a cosmic order perspective, as a composite of life energies like Qi, essence, and spirit. Zheng (2008) posits that the self is a Qi state of a sensuous subject, suggesting that the body is not self-contained but open to encompassing Qi and the pervasive wind. The body is porous, allowing Qi to pass through and disperse; melancholy, therefore, is not merely an internal state but an enveloping emotion that immerses us. Anderson’s discussion of “affective atmosphere” reflects this idea, highlighting the “spatiality of the field” and maintaining the exteriority of emotional experience (Anderson 2009, pp. 77–80; Lin 2022, p. 203).

Zhuangzi was among the earliest philosophers to reveal the Qi-state of the self from an ontological perspective: “Man’s life is a coming-together of breath. If it comes together, there is life; if it scatters, there is death. 人之生, 氣之聚也. 聚則爲生, 散則爲死” (Zhuangzi 2013: “Knowledge Wandered North 知北遊”, p. 177). He asserted that “all things are one 故萬物一也” because “all under heaven is one Qi 通天下一氣耳.” Similarly, the Baihu Tong conveys a parallel understanding: “Spirit is the faint Qi of the sun, coming and going unobstructed, permeating the limbs, the root of all transformations 神者, 恍惚太陽之氣也, 出入無間, 總雲支體, 萬化之本也.” This suggests that spirit and consciousness result from the manifestation of Yin and Yang Qi, and human emotions are outcomes of Qi transformations interpenetrating heaven and earth.

As sensuous beings transformed by Qi, we are influenced by various atmospheres and environmental changes. Affect becomes our mode of being present in reality. Ernst Schachtel introduces the concept of “activity affect,” describing the sense of aliveness experienced during full engagement in an activity without external motivation (Schachtel 1959). This aligns with the idea that emotions and vitality arise from our immersion in the flow of Qi.

The spatial atmosphere permeated by Qi envelops us entirely. In the Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons (Wenxin Diaolong 文心雕龍), it states: “People are endowed with seven emotions; they respond to things and thus are moved; being moved by things, they chant their aspirations; all of this is natural 人稟七情, 應物斯感, 感物吟志, 莫非自然.” This underscores the mutual responsiveness between humans and the external world. Gong (2014, p. 594) emphasizes that “humans can feel; things can move people; the relationship between humans and the external world is one of mutual response.”9

The cosmology of the unity of heaven and humans has been discussed since the pre-Qin era, employing terms like “sympathetic affinity,” “empathic response,” and “harmonious transformation.” These concepts describe an atmosphere or field characterized by diffusion and permeation, revealing how an invisible yet vibrant force arises and manifests.

In the Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons (Wenxin Diaolong 文心雕龍), it is written: “Emotions change with things, and words are generated from emotions … Therefore, poets are moved by things and make endless associations 情以物遷, 辭以情發 … 是以《詩》人感物, 聯類不窮.” Emotions are not generated unilaterally but are shared experiences arising from the sympathetic response between poets and scenery via Qi. Affect becomes a flowing energy, allowing the body to integrate into the cosmos. The synchronous interaction with natural wind and Qi enables exploration and transformation.

Zheng (2008) discusses how sounds and Qi rely on natural elements like mountains, waters, and stones; the wind and waves stirred by these elements shake the Qi of the human body. Emotions such as lamentation, bitterness, and sorrow echo the melody of sound and Qi. The Book of Rites, “Record of Music,” speaks of the sympathetic response in the four seasons: “The movement of the human heart is caused by things 人心之動, 物使之然也.” This highlights the intertwining of humans and Qi, where external environments influence our affective experiences.

The field of Qi-type sympathetic response becomes the “place of affect,” where emotions scatter with the wind and surge with Qi. Natural phenomena—warm spring breezes, emotional autumn winds, chilling winds, and cold rain—manifest as spatial atmospheres within the “human body,” embodying emotions of sorrow and fields of melancholy.

Heaven and earth’s Yin and Yang Qi during the four seasons shape atmospheric conditions and the colors of objects; these movements then sway the human heart (Gong 2014, p. 609). For instance, in Liu Xiang’s “Lamenting Thoughts 怨思,” the swirling wind not only causes grasses and trees to fall but also directly impacts the human condition. This illustrates the interaction between body and environment, emotions and external objects. The lyrical expression transcends individual experiences, unfolding as an emotional atmosphere expanded through profound interactions (Zheng 2008, p. 313).

Similarly, Lei Jianfu’s “Letter of the River’s Sound 江聲帖” reflects how uncontrollable emotions are dispersed through the interweaving of bodily Qi and environment via lyrical means. This fluctuating Qi flow becomes a resonance field of emotional ups and downs, highlighting the “poetic” world that arouses sympathy. By “unfolding inner emotions” and returning to the open realm of nature, the release of emotions liberates both body and mind.

In exploring these themes, Zhuangzi’s ideas on emotional well-being provide valuable insights, offering a framework for understanding how the integration of Qi, emotion, and environment can lead to emotional resolution and a harmonious existence within the dynamic universe.

4.3. Comparing the Four Core Concepts

By integrating the cosmological concepts of “focus-field” from both Eastern and Western philosophical traditions—namely, Qi in traditional Chinese philosophy and “atmosphere” in Neo-Phenomenology—we propose a new approach to self-cultivation. This approach emphasizes maintaining harmony between our emotions and the environments and situations intimately connected to us. The concepts of Qi, atmosphere, Qi-feeling, and affect are interrelated and can be further explained as shown in

Table 1. The Four Concepts and Their Relationship to Emotional Well-being.

Concept	Meaning	Representative Philosophers	Relationship to Emotional Well-Being	Interrelation
Qi	Fundamental life force or cosmic energy permeating the universe; source of all phenomena and transformations.	Mencius, Zhuangzi, Xunzi, Dong Zhongshu, Zhang Zai, Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming	Harmonizing Qi enhances physical and emotional well-being; balanced Qi ensures vitality and harmony.	Qi underlies and connects all concepts; it influences and is influenced by atmosphere, Qi-feeling, and affect.
Atmosphere	Emotional ambiance of an environment affecting perception and feelings; transcends physical properties.	Hermann Schmitz, Gernot Böhme, Martin Heidegger	Positive atmospheres contribute to emotional well-being; harmonious environments promote mental health through alignment and harmonization.	Atmosphere manifests environmental Qi; it impacts Qi-feeling and shapes affective responses.
Qi-feeling	Perception and resonance of Qi between individuals and their environment; sensory experience of Qi’s movement.	Mencius, Zhuangzi, Xunzi, Dong Zhongshu, Zhang Zai, Zhu Xi, Wang Yangming	Heightened Qi-feeling promotes empathy and emotional harmony; contributes to emotional balance.	Qi-feeling bridges Qi and affect; it determines how individuals perceive and respond emotionally to their environment.
Affect	Physiological and emotional responses arising from body-environment interaction; pre-conscious processing of stimuli.	Spinoza, Gilles Deleuze, Brian Massumi, Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick	Regulating affect enhances resilience and psychological well-being.	Affect arises from Qi as perceived through Qi-feeling within an atmosphere; it influences and is influenced by Qi balance.

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Through the comparative analysis of these concepts, we aim to explore methods to cultivate healthy emotions in complex environments. Using the “Qi-Emotion” theory of Zhuangzi as an example, we demonstrate the Daoist perspective on emotional healing.

5. Zhuangzi’s “Qi-Emotion” Theory on Emotional Well-Being

By comparing “atmosphere,” “Qi-feeling,” and the generation of emotions, we reveal the field-like nature of emotions, understanding them as cosmic energy fields that unify internal and external realms. Emotions are always embedded within the spatial structure of one’s situational context, constantly influenced by environmental changes. Therefore, self-cultivation is not merely a self-focused practice involving introspection and planning, nor does it endorse personal obsession. Instead, it should be situated within the “overall vision of the dynamic universe” (Lin 2022, p. 202).

In this study, we explore the philosophical framework of Zhuangzi (c. 369–286 BCE), whose thought presents a profoundly ontological vision grounded in the interplay between Dao (道) and Qi. For Zhuangzi, Qi functions as the vital, generative force that animates and transforms the myriad things, while the Dao serves as the immanent and primordial source from which all differentiation arises and to which it returns. This correlative relationship reveals a cosmos understood not as a static collection of entities but as a self-organizing continuum of dynamic becoming. Through the ceaseless flow of Qi guided by the spontaneous efficacy of the Dao, all beings participate in an interconnected process of transformation and harmony. Zhuangzi’s philosophy thus articulates a holistic, process-oriented ontology in which existence itself is an ever-evolving field of resonance, balance, and relational emergence.

Zhuangzi argues that discomfort, dissatisfaction, and existential unease in everyday life stem from a state of dependence (you dai 有待) marked by longing, incompleteness, and attachment to unfulfilled desires or expectations. This state arises from an unnatural attachment to fixed outcomes and an inability to accept life’s fluidity. True freedom, he contends, does not lie in pursuing rigid goals, societal norms, or external validations. Instead, it is found in attuning oneself to the inherent nature of the cosmos. By embracing the natural flow of the universe, individuals can harmonize with the six energies (liu Qi 六氣) that govern the world, shaping and sustaining all phenomena (Zhuangzi 2013: “Let It Be, Leave It Alone 在宥”). In doing so, they cultivate peace, inner alignment, and detachment from cycles of desire and fear. Zhuangzi’s philosophy thus advocates for a mode of existence that is fluid, adaptive, and deeply integrated with the rhythms of the natural world, emphasizing spontaneity and naturalness (zi ran 自然) over control and manipulation.

This study provides a comprehensive examination of the Zhuangzi, exploring its extensive philosophical concepts, including discussions on the nature of Qi, emotions, and the will. We aim to illuminate the deeper philosophical implications of Zhuangzi’s ideas, particularly how they inform his conception of emotional well-being and spiritual well-being. The analysis addresses key practices proposed by Zhuangzi, such as the cultivation of “fasting the mind” (xin zhai 心齋), the principle of “non-action” (wu wei 無爲), the notion of “seeing the world through the Dao” (yi dao guan shi 以道觀之), and the approach of “resolving disputes with clarity” (mo ruo yi ming 莫若以明). Ultimately, we highlight Zhuangzi’s vision of emotional well-being, which centers on living a life of freedom achieved through maintaining harmony with nature and cultivating inner peace that transcends worldly attachments. Through this harmonious alignment with the natural world, Zhuangzi suggests that one can achieve spiritual and emotional well-being marked by ease, spontaneity, and profound freedom from the constraints of social expectations and personal desires.

Zhuangzi views emotional well-being as more than the absence of turmoil; it is an active cultivation of harmony with the natural order. It requires a mind and spirit that are fluid, free from external constraint, and attuned to the spontaneous rhythms of the cosmos. For Zhuangzi, equilibrium emerges not through control or withdrawal but through existential alignment with the Dao’s self-generating flow. His philosophy thus presents a vision of affective harmony grounded in openness, inner freedom, and resonance with the living transformation of all things (Ren 2018).

5.1. The Body as Medium: Perceptive Resonance and Qi Interaction

Traditional texts frequently highlight the significance of the body and physical form in self-reflection and self-cultivation. The body serves as a fundamental medium for connecting with the external world and experiencing empathy. Bodily sensations and self-awareness stimulate perception, evoking moral qualities such as compassion, reverence, shame, respect, filial piety, and fraternal love (Zhang 2018).

In Pre-Qin literature, terms like “self-cultivation 修身,” “self-examination 省身,” and “self-preservation 保身” imply that the body is both the carrier and participant in social order within the framework of rites and propriety. Through daily ethical practices and life experiences, individuals develop relational structures with themselves, others, the world, and all things. From a Confucian perspective, the practice of rites is crucial for enhancing benevolence and human nature. Confucius emphasized that true understanding of rites and music goes beyond outward forms and requires internal cultivation, fostering harmony between body and mind (Analects 17.11).

Enhancing bodily perception to cultivate the mind, will, and Qi is a key aspect of this internal cultivation. The integration of body and mind through rites enables individuals to “empathize with others 識他者,” “be self-aware 關於己,” and even “regard heaven, earth, and all things as one 以天地萬物爲一體.” Without bodily perceived emotional encounters within the emotional atmosphere, subjective experience is lacking. The relational structure between the individual and the world can be summarized as a schema of perception—empathy—world. The interconnected body, empathetic heart, and shared sensory world collectively constitute Zhuangzi’s Qi theory, unfolding as spiritual cultivation that involves adapting to circumstances and following the Dao.

In Zhuangzi’s view, the health of the human body and mind is intricately linked to the balance of Yin and Yang Qi; the physical and mental well-being of individuals depends on maintaining this balance (Zhuangzi 2013: “Mastering Life 達生”). Cultivating Qi is essential for preserving life and health, as different states of Qi are associated with various bodily conditions. Imbalances can lead to emotional disturbances and physical ailments. For example, if the vital breath ascends and fails to descend again, it causes him to be chronically irritable. If it descends and does not ascend again, it causes him to be chronically forgetful. And if it neither ascends nor descends but gathers in the middle of the body in the region of the heart, then he becomes ill 上而不下, 則使人善怒; 下而不上, 則使人善忘; 不上不下, 中身當心, 則爲病 (Zhuangzi 2013: “Mastering Life 達生”, p. 150).

Environmental factors like wind influence Qi, and thus, changes in the environment profoundly affect human emotions and health. The metaphor of wind and clouds signifies the unpredictability of desires and transformations, directly influencing emotional movement and the quality of bodily Qi (Zheng 2008, p. 300). Excessive emotions disrupt the harmony of Yin and Yang within the body, impacting both personal well-being and the natural world. As Zhuangzi notes, “Are men exceedingly joyful?—they will do damage to the Yang element. Are men exceedingly angry?—they will do damage to the Yin. And when both Yang and Yin are damaged, the four seasons will not come as they should; heat and cold will fail to achieve their proper harmony; and this in turn will do harm to the bodies of men 人大喜邪? 毗於陽; 大怒邪? 毗於陰. 陰陽並毗, 四時不至, 寒暑之和不成, 其反傷人之形乎” (Zhuangzi 2013: “Let It Be, Leave It Alone 在宥”, p. 74).

Negative emotions such as hatred, desire, anger, depression, and anxiety can disturb the mind and spirit, leading to confusion and loss of purpose. These emotions, if unchecked, erode mental health and make it difficult to attain clarity. Therefore, Zhuangzi advocates eliminating mental disturbances to achieve openness and align with the Dao:

“Wipe out the delusions of the will; undo the snares of the heart; rid yourself of the entanglements to virtue; open up the roadblocks in the Way 徹志之勃, 解心之謬, 去德之累, 達道之塞” (Zhuangzi 2013: “Geng Sang Chu 庚桑楚”, p. 197).

By cultivating Qi and harmonizing the body and mind, individuals can achieve a state of balance and well-being, connecting deeply with the natural world and fostering emotional well-being.

5.2. The Enlightened Mind: Central to Therapeutic Transformation

Zhuangzi’s Qi theory provides foundational support for the concept of empathy, emphasizing that the shared Qi throughout the world allows for resonant connections among all beings. He proposes a transformative journey from the “common mind 凡俗之心,” characterized by preconceived notions and biases, to the “enlightened mind 以明之心” aligned with the Dao. The common heart often leads to partiality and conflict, as “individuals firmly believe in their own correctness while deeming others wrong 自以爲是, 則以彼爲非矣” (Guo 1961, p. 66). By contrast, the enlightened mind is capable of transcending the oppositional structure of this and that, right and wrong, thereby offering a form of therapeutic insight at the level of conceptual orientation. From Zhuangzi’s perspective, suffering does not arise merely from the existence of differences as such, but from a compulsive attachment to those differences as fixed, self-authorizing truths. When binary distinctions are granted unquestioned authority, they solidify into evaluative dogmatism, drawing the subject into an ongoing need for self-justification and an oppositional stance toward others. By suspending the authority of such dualistic judgments, this dogmatism is loosened, and a conceptual space is opened in which the subject is no longer dominated by the anxiety of achieving absolute coherence or correctness. In this space, the dissolution of rigid oppositions functions therapeutically—not by erasing distinctions altogether, but by freeing the subject from the existential burden imposed by their reification.

The state of the mind is intimately connected to the body, influencing one’s experience of the world. The relentless pursuit of worldly goals can lead to exhaustion and confusion, trapping individuals in a state characterized by fluctuating emotions and mental turmoil (Zhuangzi 2013: “Discussion on Making All Things Equal 齊物論”). Negative emotions invade the mind, eroding mental health and making clarity elusive.

To overcome this turmoil, Zhuangzi introduces the method of “fasting the mind,” which involves transcending sensory perception and mental constructs to reach a state of emptiness where the Dao can enter (Zhuangzi 2013: “In the World of Men 人間世”). This process requires maintaining unity of will and listening with the Qi rather than the ears or mind. By emptying the mind of biases and attachments, one creates space for the Dao to unfold naturally. Chen Guying interprets this progression as moving from sensory perception to mental governance, and finally to the Qi operation, a step-by-step advancement toward enlightenment (Chen 2009).

Zhuangzi advocates using the mind like a mirror—reflective but untainted by the images it reflects:

“Use the mind like a mirror—going after nothing, welcoming nothing, responding but not storing 用心若鏡, 不將不迎, 應而不藏” (Zhuangzi 2013: “Fit for Emperors and Kings 應帝王”, p. 59).

By adopting an open heart that embraces all things as one and confronting reality without attachment, individuals achieve serenity and harmony. The ultimate virtue lies in accepting one’s fate without being swayed by grief or joy, allowing the mind and spirit to flow freely with external changes and nurturing one’s nature without greed or dissatisfaction (Zhuangzi 2013: “In the World of Men 人間世”).

In this state, the mind roams freely amidst phenomena, observing the unity of heaven, earth, and all things. Individuals return to the “vast field of manifestation”, merging their lives with the cosmic life and achieving spiritual freedom. Zhuangzi pursued the ideal of the “true person” (zhen ren 真人), who embodies authenticity and infinite transcendence by aligning individual life with the universal Dao. With a mind embodying simplicity and purity, the spirit transcends material obstructions, enabling one to “roam freely in the realm of the Dao,” attaining emotional well-being through profound harmony with the natural world.

5.3. Symbiotic Unity: Returning to Heaven and Earth for Healing

Building upon Zhuangzi’s ideas, contemporary scholars explore the symbiotic relationship between humans and the cosmos. Lai (2023) proposes a “philosophy of symbiosis,” asserting that symbiosis is the fundamental reality of nature. Chen et al. (2022) reference Merleau-Ponty’s concept of the “flesh of the world” and Schelling’s philosophy of nature, suggesting that the concept of Qi can bridge phenomenology from Heidegger to Merleau-Ponty. They distinguish between the physical body and the invisible, receptive Qi-transformed body that resonates with Qi. Through this resonance, individuals form intertwined relationships with others and the world, leading to “empathetic resonance.”

Zhuangzi explains the creation and evolution of the universe through the transformation of Qi, considering it the basic element constituting the world. The vitality of Qi drives the movement of heaven and earth, and its gathering and dispersing nurture all things. Humans, objects, and even the cosmos are interconnected through Qi transformation, establishing a sympathetic relationship among all entities (Zhuangzi 2013: “Knowledge Rambling in the North 知北遊”; “Free and Easy Wandering 逍遙遊”). Emotions, as manifestations of Qi, permeate this empathetic world, allowing individuals to feel immersed in certain atmospheres.

In this holistic emotional atmosphere, Zhuangzi advocates restoring one’s natural feelings and “letting the mind play in the harmony of virtue 遊心乎德之和” (Zhuangzi 2013: “The Sign of Virtue Complete 德充符”, p. 35). By perceiving the unity of all things and following the natural course without opposition or conflict, one achieves a state where the heart is undisturbed and emotions are balanced (Zhuangzi 2013: “The Sign of Virtue Complete 德充符”).

To reach this state, Zhuangzi emphasizes cultivating the mind and practicing non-action (wu wei). By uniting with the natural Qi and freeing the mind from concerns, individuals align and resonate with the life of things. This approach mirrors Laozi’s teachings: “Attain utmost emptiness; maintain steadfast stillness. All things arise together; I observe their return 致虛極, 守靜篤, 萬物並作, 吾以觀其復” (Laozi, Chapter 16).

Zhuangzi describes the “perfect person” (zhi ren 至人) as one whose mind is like a mirror—reflective yet unblemished, responding to stimuli without retaining them. This person practices non-action, navigating life’s complexities without being hindered by attachments (Zhuangzi 2013: “Fit for Emperors and Kings 應帝王”). The essence of Zhuangzi’s philosophy lies in achieving spiritual freedom by transcending mental constraints and suffering. This freedom surpasses concerns of life and death, fame and fortune, encouraging inner liberation and self-mastery. By aligning with the Dao and perceiving nature as the dwelling place for the human spirit, individuals transcend the “turbid and sunken” world, roaming freely within the harmonious cosmos.

5.4. The Art of Free Wandering: Achieving Ultimate Emotional Freedom

Zhuangzi’s concept of freedom centers on attaining inner liberation through harmony with the Dao. He posits that freedom is intrinsic to human nature and can be realized by transcending external constraints and internal attachments. This idea aligns with Yin Haiguang’s notion of “inner freedom” or “freedom of an open mind” (Yin 1990). However, it differs from concepts like Isaiah Berlin’s “positive freedom,” which emphasizes the freedom to act upon one’s will—a distinction important to note since Zhuangzi’s freedom focuses on liberation from desires and societal expectations rather than the capacity to act.

To achieve this realm of free and unfettered wandering, Zhuangzi advocates practicing non-action (wu wei) and eliminating artificial constructs. This involves several key steps:

(1) Eliminate Artificial Constructs: Embrace nature with an open, non-action attitude.

(2) Detach from Fame and Fortune: Remove the bondage of external success on one’s life and mind.

(3) Avoid Cunning and Argumentation: Let go of manipulative speech and stubborn debates.

(4) Discard Prejudices: Release established experiential biases.

(5) Overcome Unstable or Excessive Emotions: Prevent personal likes and dislikes from harming one’s well-being.

These methods encourage individuals to gain true insight into the Dao while valuing their life experiences. Facing life’s suffering and misfortune, one should cultivate inner joy through mental tranquility and transcendence. For Zhuangzi, life and death are natural processes of Qi gathering and dispersing: “Man’s life is a coming-together of breath. If it comes together, there is life; if it scatters, there is death 人之生, 氣之聚也. 聚則爲生, 散則爲死” (Zhuangzi 2013: “Knowledge Rambling in the North 知北遊”, p. 177). By understanding this, one can overcome the fear of death and attain spiritual peace (Zhuangzi 2013: “The Great Master 大宗師”).

Table 2. Zhuangzi’s Interpretation and Application of the Concepts.

Concept	Zhuangzi’s Interpretation	Role in Emotional Healing	Body–Mind Relationship
Qi	Fundamental essence; life is Qi’s gathering, death its dispersal; unity of all through Qi.	Cultivating and harmonizing Qi aligns individuals with the Dao, leading to emotional balance.	Harmonized Qi unites body and mind, promoting physical health and mental clarity.
Atmosphere	External environment filled with Qi influences emotions; perceiving unity dissolves subjective biases.	Harmonizing with the atmosphere fosters serenity and peace by reducing internal resistance.	Body senses and responds to atmosphere through Qi; alignment calms the mind.
Qi-feeling	Heightened awareness of Qi flow within and around oneself; understanding interconnectedness of all things.	Cultivating Qi-feeling transcends biases and emotional disturbances, promoting harmony.	Enhanced Qi-feeling unites body and mind; mind reflects the world without distortion.
Affect	Emotions are natural but transient; overattachment leads to suffering; should not dominate one’s being.	Observing emotions without attachment leads to stability; practices like non-action minimize disturbances.	Balancing sensations with mental detachment reduces disruptions to well-being.

summarizes how Zhuangzi interprets and utilizes the four concepts—Qi, atmosphere, Qi-feeling, and affect—in his philosophy. By understanding and integrating these concepts, individuals can achieve emotional healing by transcending the self and embracing unity with the Dao, leading to holistic well-being.

Through a reflective understanding and integrative appropriation of the interrelated notions of Qi, atmosphere, Qi-feeling, and affect, as articulated within Zhuangzi’s philosophical framework, people can loosen their ego-centered attachments and suspend the rigid boundaries of a reified self. This process entails a gradual reorientation of experiential awareness, whereby the self comes to participate more fluidly in the dynamic transformations of the Dao. Such attunement mitigates forms of emotional disturbance that arise from a misalignment between the individual and the surrounding world, not by corrective intervention, but by dissolving the conceptual and affective fixations that generate disharmony.

This mode of integration gestures toward a holistic condition of flourishing in which bodily responsiveness, cognitive openness, and existential vitality are no longer in tension but mutually reinforcing each other. In this sense, Zhuangzi’s vision of emotional freedom does not consist in the regulation or suppression of affect, but in release from the constraints imposed by habitual judgment and anthropocentric projection. Emotional ease emerges as a corollary of resonant responsiveness to the spontaneous rhythms of the cosmos, wherein affective life is no longer governed by subjective insistence but unfolds in accordance with the unforced natural unfolding of things (Q. Li 2025). Such freedom is not an achievement of the will, but the outcome of sustained philosophical transformation.

6. Conclusions

This study has explored the profound connections between Zhuangzi’s Qi-emotion theory and contemporary concepts of atmosphere and affect, revealing a holistic approach to emotional well-being rooted in Daoist philosophy. By examining the interplay of Qi, atmosphere, Qi-feeling, and affect, we have demonstrated how emotions are not solely internal states but are dynamically co-constituted through the interaction between individuals and their environments. Therefore, emotional healing is not a solitary or isolated event but emerges through the continuous, dynamic, and reciprocal interaction between the physical, mind, spiritual and environmental dimensions. This integration fosters a state of harmonious balance in which the individual reconnects with the vital forces of the universe. Based on the ideas of aligning with the “Dao” and harmonizing with “Heaven”, Zhuangzi naturally advocates concepts such as “to express one’s true feelings” (盡情), “to return to one’s true nature” (復情), “to respond to feelings appropriately” (應情), “to return to one’s true emotions” (反情), and “to understand the true nature of life” (達情). Throughout the Zhuangzi text, there are multiple discussions on the interactive relationship between emotions and Qi, emphasizing that the harmonization of Qi leads to a state of emotional freedom and liberation. This elaboration of the perspective signifies not merely emotional well-being, but the restoration of a deeper, cosmic harmony between the individual and the universe.

The findings of this study have significant implications for contemporary philosophical practice and therapeutic approaches. Incorporating Zhuangzi’s Qi-emotion theory into modern contexts can facilitate new ways of understanding and addressing emotional distress by focusing on the interconnectedness of mind, body, and environment. This perspective aligns with emerging trends in phenomenology and affect theory, suggesting a fertile ground for interdisciplinary collaboration.

Future research may explore how different philosophical traditions offer contrasting yet complementary therapeutic frameworks, each illuminating distinct dimensions of human coexistence and self-transformation.10 For example, with regard to the problem of the relationship between the self and others, the Confucian conception of benevolence (Ren仁), grounded in the relational logic of the “two,” articulates an ideal of moral reciprocity that presupposes shared human likeness and common moral sentiments. Within this framework, the task is to cultivate and negotiate self-other relations on the basis of an enduring moral self.

Rather, Zhuangzi advances a distinct methodological orientation toward the self-other problem. His aim is to participate in the world without being harmed by the relations. By suspending attachment to fixed identities through practices such as fasting of the mind and sitting in forgetfulness, the individual does not retreat from human relations but becomes capable of inhabiting them with greater flexibility and imaginative openness. The emptying of rigid self-identification allows the self to move within and across tensions without being dominated by them, thereby facilitating a more fluid and non-adversarial mode of coexistence. As S. Chen (2002) has argued, Zhuangzi gestures toward a form of “mutual subjectivity,” in which others are not reduced to members of a moral category but encountered as individual and irreducible beings.

In addition, future research can also further explore the applications of Zhuangzi’s philosophy in clinical settings, particularly in developing culturally sensitive therapeutic practices that integrate Eastern and Western wisdom traditions. By embracing the Daoist understanding of emotional well-being, practitioners can foster approaches that promote holistic health, empathy, and a deeper sense of connection with the world.