A Unique Religious Landscape: Indian-Origin Vocabulary in Om-nāma, a 17th-Century Text in Persian

Abstract

Om-nāma is a poem written in India in the 17th century. Its author was Banwalidas Wali, a protégé of the Mughal prince Dara Shikoh. It is a free adaptation of the much older Sanskrit treatise Yogavāsiṣṭha. However, while deeply rooted in the Indic tradition, Om-nāma extensively uses Islamicate imagery, especially from the realm of Sufism. In this article, we will analyze the terminology of Indic origin in Om-nāma, focusing on forms that interact ininterestingly with Islamicate (Perso-Arabic) vocabulary.

1. Introduction

Om-nāma, or The Book on the [sacred syllable] Om, is a poem written in Modern Persian belonging to the genre masnawī, which is attributed to Banwālīdās Walī (d. 1674) (Gandhi 2019). Born into a caste of kāyasthas (scribes, accountants, record-keepers), Banwālīdās Walī used Persian as his primary literary language. He was a protege of Dārā Šikoh, yet based upon certain biographical accounts, he was influenced by the teachings of Mullā Šāh Badakšī, the Qādirī mystic (d. 1661), whom he met in Kashmir, where he spent his later years as a renouncer associated with the Sufi order. Apart from his original works in both prose and poetry, Banwālīdās Walī translated and adapted Indian treatises into Persian. He was initially supported by the Mughal court, which at this time was interested in the production of Persian works, both translations and original texts, associated with the Indic (Hindu, to be precise) philosophy of Vedānta. Later, that is, from the reign of Ālamgīr (Aurangzeb) (r. 1658–1707) onwards, he was supported by others outside the court. Bānwālīdās Walī’s engagement with searching for equivalents between Hindu Vedānta and Islamicate concepts through the medium of Persian represented a broader intellectual trend of 17th-century North India. The concern for the shared metaphisics of Vedānta and Sufi teaching emerged both from independent works, e.g., memoirs of the Mughal prince Salim, and Persian translations of Sanskrit texts, among the latter includes the Sirr-i-Akbar, i.e., translation of Upaniṣads promoted by Dārā Sikoh, Ātmavilāsa attributed to Śaṅkara translated as Mir Munshi by Shah Jahan, or Prabodhacandrodaya by Kṛṣṇamiśra renderred as Gulzār-i hāḷ by our Banwālīdās (Cappello 2020, pp. 260–61).

Om-nāma, loosely based on the Sanskrit Yogavāsiṣṭha (Vasiṣṭha’s [treatise on] Yoga), is an independent literary creation he pursued alone, presenting a complex vision incorporating the ideas of Advaita Vedānta and the teachings of haṭha-yoga as its basis, but also including Islamicate (especially Sufi) concepts (Gandhi 2019), as well as many features of the traditional imagery found in Persian mystical poetry. Yogavāsiṣṭha1, a lengthy treatise alternatively known as Vāsiṣṭharāmāyaṇa or Yogavāsiṣṭhamahārāmāyaṇa, is traditionally ascribed to Vālmīki, the legendary author of Rāmāyaṇa. Its content is structured upon a dialog between Rāma, the prince of Ayodhyā, an incarnation of Viṣṇu, and the sage Vasiṣṭha. Set prior to the events described in the Rāmāyaṇa, Vasiṣṭha instructs Rāma on how to attain liberation from the circle of rebirths, as well as the nature of both the self and the world.

Om-nāma is not the only available text inspired by Yogavāsiṣṭha available in Persian. Let us mention here the existence of an early Persian rendering of Laghuyogavāsiṣṭha under the name Jūg Bāsišt, prepared by a team consisting of two Hindu scholars—Jagannātha Miśra Banārasī and Paṭhān Miśra Jājīpūrī—as well as their Muslim colleague Nizām al-Dīn Pānīpatī (Nair 2020, p. 1ff). Another text available is Muntaxab-i Jūg Bāsišt (Nair 2020, p. 128) by Mīr Findiriskī, as well as commentary on Jūg Bāsišt by the same author, known as Sharh-i Jūg (Nair 2020, p. 122). Also, see Chapple (1984, p. ix).

The content of Om-nāma is rooted in different traditions that may be divided into two main branches: Indic and Islamicate. Descriptions of haṭha-yoga practices, such as breath control (prāṇāyāma) or the cleansing of the stomach through swallowing a piece of cloth (dhauti), and speculations concerning speech (Sanskr. vāc) are intertwined with typical elements from the imagery of Persian mystical poetry, including wine, the vision of God as the beloved, etc. Indeed, the text itself declares in v. 1184–1185 that

rāst či hindū [či] musulmān buwad

dīdan-i jān dīdan-i jānān buwad (eGangotri 2017, p. 64)

Truly, whether [one] is a Hindu or a Muslim

Seeing the soul is seeing the Beloved one

“Om-nāma,” as well as other works by Banwālīdās Walī, occupies a special place among the numerous texts produced as part of the movement to translate significant Hindu religious works into Persian under the auspices of the Mughal court. What makes Om-nāma unique, in the authors’ opinion, is its exceptional character. It is not merely an Indian work translated into Persian to make it accessible to Persian-speaking audiences. As we have already noted, it is an independent literary creation, merely inspired by the Yogavāsiṣṭha. It belongs simultaneously to both the Indic and the Islamicate traditions. Translating the Laghuyogavāsiṣṭha into Jūg Bāsišt required, as mentioned above, the collaboration of two Hindu and one Muslim scholar. Banwālīdās Walī, however, did not need collaborators. He was a man of synthesis—belonging to both traditions himself.

Several copies of Om-nāma are preserved in the libraries of Lahore and Srinagar (Gandhi 2019), to which a digitized version was published online by the NGO eGangotri Digital Trust in 2017. This is now available online (eGangotri 2017).2 This manuscript has been chosen as the basis for the present article. On a few occasions, we will also refer to a manuscript kept in Kashmir University in Srinagar.3

The present paper is dedicated to analyzing Indo-Aryan terminology in Om-nāma, with particular focus on forms that resonate meaningfully and in interesting ways with Sufi terms of Perso-Arabic origin. We believe that such an analysis is essential for reconstructing the religious landscape of the author of the text.

It has to be indicated that there is a number of other publications that discuss, at least as one of the problems within their scope, the terminology of Persian adaptations of Hindu texts. See, e.g., Cappello (2020), Gandhi (2019), Nair (2020), Smolin (2024), etc.

A few clarifications are needed regarding the transcription used in the present article. Sanskrit, Hindi, and other Indian forms are transcribed according to the commonly accepted practices. In the case of Persian, the situation is a bit complicated. Since the text in question was written in the Indian variety of the language, which was quite conservative both in its vocalism and consonantism, a transcription based on the pronunciation of Early Classical Modern Persian is used in the article instead of the pronunciation currently used in Iran. Such a method not only reflects the actual pronunciation of the text better but also allows us to understand how forms of Indian origin are rendered. Such transcription is significantly different from the one use for Modern Persian as used in Iran today, especially when it comes to the vowel system (see Thiesen 1892, pp. 3–4).

Additionally, we refrain from marking features that have actually no phonological value in Persian, such as the glottal stop in most positions, as well as the differences between emphatic and non-emphatic sounds rendered by Arabic letters. Although some authors choose differently, we adopt this system because the notation of phonologically irrelevant differences leads to the transformation of phonological transcription into a hybrid transcription–transliteration system, which obscures the actual pronunciation. There are, however, exceptions to this rule. As Persian poetics are, to some extent, based on the written form of the text, we will mark some non-phonological features in the scansion analysis. To maintain a clear distinction, these examples will by formated using a monospaced font and with syllable boundary marking, e.g., ’awm-bu-wad-tā-ji-sa-rī-har-wa-raq, (as opposed to the regular transcription: awm buwad tāj-i sar-i har waraq).

2. Vocabulary Selection

In this article, we focus on those forms of Indic origin that are particularly interesting due to their interaction with Islamicate (especially Sufi) context. Of course, some degree of subjectivity is inevitable with such criteria. The selected terms are explained in the main part of the paper (Section 3). The remaining forms of Indic origin are listed in the Appendix A with less detailed explanations. The appendix also serves as an index, as the main entries are mentioned there, too, with references to the appropriate subsections in Section 3.

3. Explanation of the Selected Forms of Indian Origin

3.1. Ākāš (akāš)

From S. ā-kāśa “(…) a free or open space, vacuity (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 126), or, in philosophy, “the subtle and ethereal fluid (supposed to fill and pervade the universe and to be the peculiar vehicle of life and of sound) (…)” (ibid.) In Om-nāma, in a fragment on the five great elements, we find a hyperbolic expression: “[one] pore of the body became all the akāš” (manfaz-i tan jumla-i akāš šud: eGangotri 2017, p. 37). In addition, ākāš is identified as the first of the elements (… bhūt-i akāš buwad rāhbar: eGangotri 2017, p. 53). In v. 476–477, akāš is intertwined in an interesting way with Sufi imagery: “It’s remarkable that akāśa becomes incarnated|It becomes a chalice, a jug, wine and an amphora” (turfa ki ākāš mujassam šawad|jām-u surāhī-wu may-u xumm šawad—eGangotri 2017, p. 38). In Persian mystical poetry, wine is the medium for attaining the state of intoxication with divine love, the chalice is a container of divine wisdom, while the cupbearer may be either a guide to spiritual awakening or even God himself. At the end of his pursuit, a Sufi “discovers that wine, cup, and cupbearer are one and the same” (Schimmel 1992, p. 256) and now, from Om-nāma we learn, that this mystic union embraces akāš too. See also mahā-akāš (A.39).

3.2. Atmā (ātmā)

S. “the soul, principle of life and sensation (…) the individual soul, self, abstract individual (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 135), from the Upaniṣads onwards is identified in Indian philosophical traditions with Oṃ (Padoux 1990, p. 20), and is one of the key terminological items in the Om-nāma. In v. 844, Vasiṣṭha proclaims that the [individual] soul is ātman (jōg-i Basišṭ guft ki jīw ātmā: eGangotri 2017, p. 51), and at the same time, according to v. 116, prāṇa (lit. breath, vital force) is the shadow of ātman (prān ki ān sāya-i atmā buwad: eGangotri 2017, p. 25). Additionally, the heart is the mirror of ātman (v. 980: dil ki buwad āyina-i ātmā: eGangotri 2017, p. 56), and the idea of dividing ātman into prāṇa and the Sun, a concept known from the Upaniṣads (Padoux 1990, p. 20; van Buitenen 2017, p. 68), is also mentioned (v. 92–93: gašt ba du qism-i ayān ātmā|ān yake xuršēd-u digar prān-i-mā: eGangotri 2017, p. 24).

It is also stated in v. 1030 that ātman is smaller than a grain of barley (xurd-tar az dāna-i jaw ātmā: eGangotri 2017, p. 58). There are numerous bodies, but only one ātman (jism basī bāšad-u atmā yakē: eGangotri 2017, p. 53), which seems to be a reference to reincarnation, cf. the fragment based on Bhagavadgītā in v. 924ff. However, based on v. 1154, it seems there are in fact three ātmans (lit. There is nothing in this world apart from the three ātmans (ġayr-i si atmā nabuwad dar jahān: eGangotri 2017, p. 63). The perception of ātman is complex and problematic, as it is simultaneously the seer and the seen (nāzir-u manzūr ki ātmā atmā-yi tu-st), with the seeing ātman being all “not-seeing” (dīdan-i ātmā hama nā-dīdan ast: eGangotri 2017, p. 61). Moreover, thought does not reach ātman even though thought is the beginning of everything (fikr ba atmā na-rasad ay azīz|līk buwad ayn-i hama fikr nīz: eGangotri 2017, p. 61). Thus, it is not surprising that even the jinns (possibly meaning asuras here) are incapable of understanding ātman completely (eGangotri 2017, p. 72). While knowledge regarding ātman is limited, its role as a guide is stressed at least twice in the text, namely in v. 1031 (hast darūn-i dil-i tū rahnamā: eGangotri 2017, p. 58) and in v. 1077 (rāh-namāyanda-i har dū sarā: eGangotri 2017, p. 60). The Persian renderings of the form in question in Om-nāma are atmā and ātmā. The original Indian form might have either been taken directly from the S. Nom. sg. ātmā (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 117), cf. the homophonous Hindi form borrowed from the same source (McGregor 1993, p. 84) or the Kashmiri ātmā/ātma (Grierson 1932, p. 68). It seems that both variants (with short and long initial vowel) were used depending on what the meter required, cf. v. 78, sā-ya-yi-’at-mā-su-yi-’at-mā-ra-wad ― ⌣⌣⌣ ― ― ⌣⌣ ― ― ⌣ ― (eGangotri 2017, p. 23) vs. v. : gašt-ba-dū-qis-mi-’a-yā-nāt-mā– ⌣ ⌣ ― ― ⌣ ⌣ ― – ⌣ ― (eGangotri 2017, p. 24). It should also be remembered that short and long vowel alternation is one of the most widespread methods employed to maintain the meter in Persian poetry.

3.3. Awm

The sacred syllable Oṃ features in the title of the text and is certainly one of its key notions. As Andre Padoux remarks in his seminal book on the concept of the word vāc in the Hindu Tantra traditions (Padoux 1990), although the syllable Oṃ was used in Vedas in a ritualistic context, it was later divinized in the Upaniṣads, where it came to be treated as “the main symbol, the phonic expression par excellence of brahman (i.e., Absolute), and then as the basic mantra, the primordial sound, to which all mantras as well as any form of speech can be reduced, as the very source of the Word” (Padoux 1990, pp. 14–15). In the same period, Oṃ is identified with akṣara (etymologically ‘non-perishable’), the syllable, the basic element of the universe, which, in Vedas, is linked to the powerful word that appeared at the beginning of the World and in the Upaniṣads with the Absolute itself (Padoux 1990, pp. 13–17). “There is nothing more powerful than oṃ, for within this one syllable (which should be uttered at the beginning of any Vedic text) is encapsulated the whole of the Veda” (Padoux 1990, p. 19). In later speculations chiefly transmitted via the Shaiva Tantra texts from Kashmir, an issue that is particularly elaborated on is that of the three phonemes into which Oṃ may be split (a, u, m) and the various correlations with which this division may be associated (e.g., three deities; three Vedas; three worlds, fire, air and sun; three types of breath, etc.), as well as the relations between the sacred word and the breath (Padoux 1990, p. 20). Another term used to denote oṃ is praṇava.

Let us present the key concepts on Oṃ occurring in the poem. In fact, the Om-nāma starts with a eulogy to the syllable Oṃ and this section of the text is a valuable source of information about how the author perceived the sacred, primordial sound. Oṃ is presented both as the greatest of the names of the Divine Truth (a’zam-i asmā-i haq: eGangotri 2017, p. 20; Gandhi 2019) and “of our god” (a’zam-i asmā-i xudāwand-i mā: eGangotri 2017, p. 21). Meditating upon this name allows an individual to know all of them (har ki az īn ism bixānad sabaq|bugzarad az jumla-i asmā-i haq: eGangotri 2017, p. 21). However, articulating the holy syllable is not a simple task, of which the tongue of the heart is incapable (xāndan-i īn harf basā muškil ast|ājiz az ān harf zabān-i dil ast: eGangotri 2017, p. 21).4

Oṃ is also closely associated with light, as it is described as “the lamp (or candle) of our bedchamber” (šam’-i šabistān-i mā: eGangotri 2017 p. 20,), and thus brightens (lit. makes white) the darkness of the night (Awm kunad zulmat-i šab-rā safēd: eGangotri 2017, p. 20). It is also “the light of our soul” (rawšani-i jān-i mā: eGangotri 2017, p. 20) and its product (or “fruit”) is “the light of self-disclosure” (nūr-i tajallī: eGangotri 2017, p. 20; Gandhi 2020a). Oṃ brings tidings from the brightness (ārad zi tajallā nawēd: eGangotri 2017, p. 20). It is also full of light in a manner similar to ākāśa (i.e., space, the ether, s. ākāš) itself, apart from being fixed or unchangeable (sābit-u pur nūr čū ākāš ū-st: eGangotri 2017, p. 21).

Oṃ is also repeatedly referred to as a leader or guide (rahbar, rahnamā) (eGangotri 2017, pp. 20–21).

An interesting fragment explains the connection between the sacred syllable and the holy scriptures of Hinduism: Oṃ is the “best part or essence (lit. cream) of all the four Vedas” (zubda-i har čārbēd: eGangotri 2017, p. 20; Gandhi 2019). Oṃ is also often mentioned together with the “sea of substance”, e.g., it is described as “the first wave of the sea of substance or essence” (mawj-i naxust ast zi daryā-i zāt: eGangotri 2017, p. 20) or as “a drop from the sea of substance” (qatra-i az qulzum-i zāt: eGangotri 2017, p. 21).

Additionally, Oṃ may be presented as the source of opposing values, such as black and white (asl-i siyāh-u safēd: eGangotri 2017, p. 20). Its primordial character is also expressed by comparing it to alif, which is the first letter [of the Perso-Arabic alphabet]5 (hamčū alif harf-i naxustīn buwad: eGangotri 2017, p. 20; Gandhi 2019). It is also explicitly called the “foundation of life” (asl-i hayyāt: eGangotri 2017, p. 21) or, according to the Kashmir University MS, “the foundation of the world” (jahān: KUM, 3). All the names (asmā) are its products, lit. fruits (eGangotri 2017, p. 21).

It is also in this initial, eulogical part of the text that the sacred syllable is called praṇava (eGangotri 2017, p. 20; Gandhi 2019). It is additionally referred to using the term akṣara (lit. “syllable; letter”) and it is identified with “all the prakāśa” (s. akšar and parkāš).

The syllable also seems to be identified with another important term of Indian origin, i.e., śabda (lit. sound, noise, word, tone, speech, etc.)6 As we can read in verses 376 and 377, “śabda is an arcane and ancient word|It consists of alef, wāw, mīm” (see šabd). It is not possible a form like śabda could be spelt using the letters alif, wāw, and mīm (in any configuration) or pronounced with /a/, /w/, and /m/ in Persian. However, this is exactly how the syllable Oṃ is written in the text. The idea to equate śabda with Oṃ is not a new one as it appears in the early Upaniṣadic texts (Sajdek 2016, p. 185) and, subsequently, is of a relatively common occurrence in the Sikh tradition and elsewhere (cf. Townsend 2015, p. 58).

One should notice that the Perso-Arabic script obscures the actual pronunciation of the holy syllable as favoured by the author of the text. The orthographical form <’wm> can be used to render both the monophtongic pronunciation /om/ and the diphtongal one, i.e., /awm/. The latter seems more probable if we consider the fact that there is an occurrence of it in Om-nāma where it is expected to rhyme with the word nawm, meaning “sleep” (eGangotri 2017, p. 22). Interestingly, at the same time, this Perso-Arabic orthography of the sacred syllable reflects very well the original concept of its origin, where it is presented as being composed of the sounds /a/, /u/, and /m/ (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 235).

See also šabd (A.81) and pranaw (A.65).

3.4. Barahman, Braham, Brahm, Brahmā

Possibly referred to as *Brahammān(?) as well, this form poses particular difficulties in analyzing the text of Om-nāma, not only because of its philosophical and religious complexity, but also because of its ambiguity and multitude of Persian variants used to render it. Generally, three separate meanings of the original S. form brahman should be taken into consideration: (1) “god Brahmā” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 738); (2) “(…) one self-existent impersonal Spirit, the one universal Soul (or one divine essence and source from which all created things emanate or with which they are identified and to which they return), the Self-existent, the Absolute, the Eternal (not generally an object of worship but rather of meditation and-knowledge (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 738); (3) “the class of men who are the repositories and communicators of sacred knowledge, the Brāhmanical caste as a body (rarely an individual Brāhman)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 738). In the last sense, it comes close to brāhmaṇa, meaning “(…) one who has divine knowledge (sometimes applied to Agni), a Brāhman, a man belonging to the 1st of the 3 twice-born classes and of the 4 original divisions of the Hindū body (generally a priest, but often in the present day a layman engaged in non-priestly occupations although the name is strictly only applicable to one who knows and repeats the Veda) (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 741). In English, we could use “Brahmā” for the first meaning, “Brahman” for the second one, and “brahmin” for the third. It should be noted, however, that the third meaning is only potentially present in Om-nāma (see below). As far as the Persian renderings in our text are concerned, (1) Brahmā is either Brahmā or Brahm, and potentially also Braham and Barahman; (2) Brahman may be written as Barahman, Braham, and Brahm, while a form like Brahammān is possible in v. 1276; (3) the meaning “brahmin” is not convincing, but is possible in two places (vv. 346 and 1254), where we find Braham and Barahman. As we can see, the Persian forms are ambiguous and we have to rely on the context, which is sometimes cryptic, so the translation will often be hypothetical. As the number of occurrences of the mentioned forms in the text is very high, let us now analyze only the selected occurrences.

• Brahman

“The breath (air, wind)—in its nature—is close to brahman” (bād buwad nazd-i barahman ba-zāt: eGangotri 2017, p. 25). “The individual soul (jīva) became an intimate friend of the Supreme Soul|close to Brahman, which is ancient” (jīw ki bā parm nadīm āmad ast|nazd-i Barahman ki qadīm āmad ast: eGangotri 2017, p. 40). A puzzling notion (from the calculating perspective) is to be found in vv. 90–91, which follows v. 89 where 7 ṛṣis (cf. rukhayšīr) were introduced: “The eighth (sic) of them thinks about Brahman|with every breath performs this remembrance (zikr) of Brahman” (haštum-i ān fikr-i Braham mīkunad|dam-ba-dam īn zikr-i Bra-ham mīkunad: eGangotri 2017, p. 24).

In v. 582–583, a yogi is encouraged: “Hear the signs of the revelations (manifestations) of Brahman|drive away your imaginations and thoughts (doubts)” (bi-šinaw ulūmāt-i zuhūrāt-i Brahm|dūr kun az xwēš xiyālāt-u wahm: eGangotri 2017, p. 42). V. 933 reveals what are the results of that: “Whoever is persistent on the path of yoga (of the yogis)|Becomes a guardian of Brahman, oh sage” (dar rah-i jōg har ki buwad mustaqīm|ayn-i brahm mī-šawad ū ay hakīm: eGangotri 2017, p. 55).

A longer fragment starting at v. 666 provides some qualities of Brahman: it is both hidden and full in everything (dar hama panhān-u purr), it is a sea of pearls (qulzum-i daryā-yi-durr), and also a pure and ancient sea (bahr-i zilāl-i qadīm). There is love in it similar to a precious pearl (išq dar ū hast ču durr-i yatīm). Brahman is also like the fat in milk (Brahm ču rawġan buwad andar laban)7 and then follows this culinary path, declaring that Brahman is also like salt in cheese (Brahm buwad hamču namak dar juban), and going back to a more spiritual context, it is the only [existing being] in the world (Brahm ki ān hast yake dar jahān), etc. (eGangotri 2017, p. 45).

Brahman is the source of light (pas ba yaqīn Brahm bi-dān ayn-i nūr: eGangotri 2017, p. 46). And, similarly, “Brahman is, to say it short, as the sea of light” (Brahm buwad jumla ču daryā-i nūr: eGangotri 2017, p. 46). “There is no pain and joy apart from the face of Brahman” (dard-u safā ġayr-i rux-i Brahm nīst: eGangotri 2017, p. 48).

Also, Brahman can be divided into two parts or types: the first one with a face and the second without a face (with a formless form?) (Brahm du qism āmada andar šumār|ān yakē bā sūrat-i bī-sūrat ast: eGangotri 2017, p. 52).

A fragment starting at v. 1136 says that there are two paths if one follows the Way of Brahman (rah-i Brahm). These paths are referred to as the small one and the big one. In the small one there are three separate things: The remembering one, the remembered one, and the [act of] remembering (zākir-u mazkūr-u zikr); while on the big path, they are all one (jumla yakē hast ba rāh-i kalān: eGangotri 2017, p. 62).

See also aparbrahm (A.6) and parabrahm (A.55).

• Brahmā

Brahmā is clearly mentioned where Trimurti is discussed (See Bišn A.18 and Šīw Section 3.17; See also Brahmāluk (Section 3.6).

• Brahmin

As it has been stated, the meaning “brahmin” is only hypothetical, possibly to be substituted in all occurrences either with Brahman or Brahmā. Nevertheless, the encouragement “Raise [o] brahmin(?)! What will you choose?” in v. 1254 (xēz barahman či kunī ixtiyār: eGangotri 2017, p. 71) seems to be addressed to a priest, rather than to the god or the Absolute.

3.5. Bībī Lalī

Pr.n. Lal Ded, also referred to as Laleśvarī, Lalla, Padminī, etc, was a Kashmiri mystic poetess. Born at the beginning of the 14th century and dying in the 1370s, though there’s a lot of controversy as far as the precise dating of her life is concerned. After marrying Nica Bhaṭṭa of Pāmpor8, she received the name Padmāvatī (Kak Odin 2007, p. 4).

In Om-nāma, Lal Ded is mentioned as an authority in mystical pursuit. She is referred to as bānū-i Kašmīr, “The Lady of Kashmir” (eGangotri 2017, p. 26), and as “That wise woman who reached the depth or profundity, i.e., the deepest knowledge” (ān zan-i dānā ki rasida ba ġawr: eGangotri 2017, p. 22). The lyrical subject ascribes the following words to her: “(…) all my life|I was reciting only one word (or: letter)” (… ba umr-i tamām|ġayr yakē harf naxāndam mudām: eGangotri 2017, p. 22), to declare in the next bayt, that “whoever contemplates one word (letter), eventually gets through all the words (letters) of the book” (eGangotri 2017, p. 22).

3.6. Brahmalūk

Ultimately, from S. Brahmaloka, “the world or heaven of Brahmā (a division of the universe and one of the supposed residences of pious spirits) (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 739). The vocalism of the final vowel is clarified by the rhyme with sulūk. This may indicate Kashmiri as the immediate source, which has lukh as the counterpart of the S. loka (Grierson 1932, p. 519).

As the text declares, “Whoever is on the way of prāṇa, brahmaloka appears before their eyes” (az rah-i prān har ki namāyad sulūk|jilwa kunad dar nazaraš brahmalūk: eGangotri 2017, p. 27). Apart from that, it is referred to using paradisiacal imagery (eGangotri 2017, p. 59). In another fragment, brahmalūk is explicitly combined with the Persian name for paradise: firdaws (eGangotri 2017, p. 60).

3.7. Dawtī-karam (dawtī-garam)

Towards the end of the text, there is an intriguing fragment, in which the author describes a particular practice: “You swallow linen rags” (latta-i karpās darūn mī-kašī: eGangotri 2017, p. 65). From the next lines, it is clear that while this practice is dangerous and painful, it is still “your (medical) treatment” (mudāwā-i tu: eGangotri 2017, p. 65). This seems to be the Persian rendering of the Indic term dhauti karman, described as swallowing a piece of cloth moistened with warm water that is subsequently removed. It is an important purificatory practice, attested in the 15th century as Haṭhapradīpīka, which is one of “the six [cleansing] processes (ṣaṭkarma)”. These practices are meant to remove fat and mucus from the body, cure various diseases, and make the individual fit to practice prāṇāyāma (Mallinson and Singleton 2008, p. 58). Indeed, the Om-nāma stresses the very same benefits from practicing dhauti karma, when stating that it will purify all the body parts (pāk kunad jumla a’zā-i tū: eGangotri 2017, p. 65), in addition to dhauti karma being manifested and expressed (ayyān-u bayān) as a sign (išārat) of (or [pointing] at) prāṇa (eGangotri 2017, p. 64).

3.8. Dēw

The form dēw is particularly interesting, as it adds a further dimension to the mixture of Indic and Islamicate elements present in the text, namely the traditions of pre-Islamic Iran. It is well known that while the Persian dēw shares the same etymology as the Indic deva, the actual meaning seems to have evolved in a rather unusual way. Probably at the time of Zarathushtra’s reform, the worship of devas (Avestan daēva-) was forbidden, which led them to evolve into demons. This (partial) theological revolution is not restricted to the term itself, as can be seen, for example, in the Iranian counterpart of the Vedic Indra found in Zarathushtrian sources as a demon (Herrenschmidt and Kelllens 1993). Thus, when analyzing the text of Om-nāma, it is necessary to determine whether the term dēw is used in the Iranian or the Indian sense. When it is understood the Indian way, it should be actually treated as another borrowing from Indian languages.

In section focusing on prāṇa, a passage from v. 199 states that “Prāṇa is the place of all our dew(s)” (prān buwad jā-i hama-i dēw-i mā). Certainly here, the word has the Indian meaning of “god”. Moreover, the element dev(a) is recognizable in the theonym Mahādēw (i.e., Shiva, lit. “great god”), which is used, e.g., in v. 348ff. in the description of the conversation between the god and his consort Pārvatī (eGangotri 2017, p. 34). Then, in v. 804, a compound, dēw-parastandagān, is used (eGangotri 2017, p. 50), which should be understood as “god-worshippers” rather than “demon-worshippers”. The same is true with regard to v. 806 (har ki čunīn dēw parastiš namūd: eGangotri 2017, p. 34).

Similarly, in v. 820–821, the word should certainly be understood in its Indic language meaning: “The god whose face is on every side|Brahma and Vishnu are the manifestations of his power” (dew ki ān har tarafē rū-i ū-st|Brahm-u Bišn mazhar-i nīrū-i ū-st: eGangotri 2017, p. 51). The same meaning is to be understood in v. 826: “If you worship such a god” (gar ba-čunīn dēw tu pūjā kunī: eGangotri 2017, p. 51), where an interesting compound verb is found consisting of the Indic element pūjā “worship” and the Persian simple verb kardan “to do”.9

As an example of the use of the word dēw with its Iranian meaning, we may put forward v. 441, where the forms dew and firišta (“angel”) seem to be in opposition (eGangotri 2017, p. 37), so the first one is to be translated as “devil” or “demon”.

3.9. Giyān

S. jñāna, meaning “knowing, becoming acquainted with, knowledge, (esp.) the higher knowledge (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 426), as well as “arcane knowledge, gnosis” (see below). The identification of the Persian form of giyān with jñāna is supported by Gandhi in relation to another text by Banwālīdās Walī (Gandhi 2019). Technically, while giyān looks quite unlike the original S. form, it is close to the actual Hindi pronunciation /gya:n/, in spite of the historic orthography <jñāna> used in the language (Caturvedi 1970, p. 251). This pronunciation is also supported by the Urdu written form, free from the historic element: <gy’n> (Platts 1884, p. 941). The metrical analysis supports the idea that the Persian form giyān was treated by the author as bisyllabic.

Giyān is mentioned as an authority in Om-nāma, when the author of the text states in v. 241 that “all three [i.e., the world, ākāśa and prāṇa] are one according to (lit. with, near to) the Knowledge” (har si yake hast ba nazd-i giyān: eGangotri 2017, p. 29).

It is important to note that while the form giyān appears only once in the text, in v. 241 (see the citation above), it has a Perso-Arabic equivalent, which is used much more often, namely ma’rifat. For example, in verses 864–865, it is stated that “When the knowledge of the mind becomes complete|This problem of yours will get solved by itself” (ma’rifat-i aql ču kāmil šawad|xwud ba-xwud īn muškil-i tū hal(l) šawad: eGangotri 2017, p. 52).

In v. 1135, those who follow the path of yoga are urged to choose the knowledge of the self (ma’rifat-i nafs hamī peša kun: eGangotri 2017, p. 62), and from v. 1176, it can be learnt that “The knowledge about your soul is your manifestation” (ma’rifat-i jān-i tu burhān-i tu-st: eGangotri 2017, p. 64). An interesting fragment from the Om-nāma starts at v. 1262 and relates the story of all the jinns who, after assembling, went to ask Prajāpati what is the knowledge of ātman (ma’rifat-i ātmā) as they themselves lack the complete knowledge (eGangotri 2017, p. 71).

Apart from the knowledge of the soul (see above), the “knowledge of the body” (ma’rifat-i tan) is mentioned in the text in v. 1290 (eGangotri 2017, p. 73).

3.10. Jog (pl. jogiyān)

S. yogin is “m. a follower of the Yoga system, a Yogin (usually called Yogī) or contemplative saint, devotee, ascetic (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 857). In Om-nāma, jōg is the practicioner of the system of both spiritual and physical exercises described by the text, see, e.g., “Our yogi arrests [his] breath|The parrot of soul tugs at the bars of the cage” (jōgi-i mā habs-i nafas mī-kunad|tūtī-i jān band-i qafas mī-kanad: eGangotri 2017, p. 26). Vāsiṣṭha himself is referred to as a yogi or even the leader (lit. crown of the head) of all yogis (jōg-i Basišṭ tāj-i sar-i jōgiyān: eGangotri 2017, p. 36). Many verses of the text start with the expression jōg-i Basišṭ guft (…). The text also implies that to achieve liberation (mukt—q.v.), one has to become either a yogi or an ascetic (ma’nī-i mukt īn buwad ay haq-šinās|xāh tu jōg-ē šawī xāh sannyās (…): (eGangotri 2017, p. 47), lit. “The meaning of liberation is such|Whether you become a yogi or an ascetic (…)”), cf. sannyās (A.76). From v. 930–931, we find out that “a yogi is one, who recognizes good and evil as one and sets them free” (jōg buwad ānki bad-u nīk-rā|har du yak-ē dānad-u sāzad rahā: eGangotri 2017, p. 55). Moreover, a person persistant on the path of yoga becomes the guardian of Brahman (s. Section 3.4).

3.11. Mahā-parlay

S. mahā-pralaya means “the total annihilation of the universe at the end of a Kalpa (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 797). It appears in v. 1094, where it is juxtaposed with the Perso-Arabic word fanā’ “vanishing, passing away (…)” (Steingass 1892, p. 939), an important term of Persian mystic poetry and Sufism in general. In this context, fanā’ is defined as “the passing away of human consciousness in the divine and the obliteration of imperfect qualities of the soul by substitution of new, divinely bestowed attributes.” (Böwering 1988, p. 722). The similarity of fanā’ to Hindu and Buddhist concepts is so striking that some scholars, including Zaehner, advocated for the Indic origin of this concept in Sufi teachings. This view, however, is being rejected by others (Böwering 1988). The term fanā’ appears repeatedly in the text, generally being used on a cosmic rather than an individual scale, in much the same way as mahā-parlay, eg., in v. 493ff., where the concepts of ijād (creation), baqā’ (persistence) and fanā’ (annihilation) are associated with the Hindu deities Brahmā, Viṣṇu, and Śiva (eGangotri 2017, p. 39). See also parlay (A.58).

3.12. Mahā-rīšī

S. Mahā-ṛṣi “great sage”, used just once in Om-nāma, referring to Vāsiṣṭha (eGangotri 2017, p. 61). Cf. rukha(y)šīr (Section 3.15).

3.13. Prān

S. prāṇa “(…) the breath of life, breath, respiration, spirit, vitality (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 705). When specific types of breath are discussed, prāṇa is associated with the heart.

Prān is one of the key concepts of the Om-nāma. In v. 108, it is said that it is formed of light (prān ki az nūr sirišta buwad: eGangotri 2017, p. 24), and thus, it is not surprising that “From the breath of prāṇa your heart became bright” (az dam-i prān dil ba-tu rawšan šuda: eGangotri 2017, p. 24).

On the relationship of prāṇa and ātman, see ātma (Section 3.2). Prāṇa is also the leader and the guide (prān buwad rahbar-u rahnamā: eGangotri 2017, p. 25) and also the place of all our gods (s. dew: Section 3.8)

In a certain sense, prāṇa is also equated with the sacred syllable Oṃ, as there are two almost identical verses in the text, v. 6: “Om is the source of [both] black and white” (s. Awm: Section 3.3) and v. 120: “Prāṇa is the source of black and white” (prān buwad asl-i siyāh-u safēd: eGangotri 2017, p. 25). Apart from that, prāṇa is also the intended meaning of all the four Vedas (Gandhi 2020a), as demonstrated in v. 121 (s. Bed: A.14).

Prāṇa annihilates the senses of the intellect (prān dar ān waqt hawās(s)-i xirad: eGangotri 2017, p. 25), and all those who came from the [Divine] Truth and possess a soul are in need of prāṇa (har ki zi haqq sāhib-i jān āmada|jumla ki muhtāj ba prān āmada: eGangotri 2017, p. 23; see also Gandhi 2019).

In verses 110ff., prāṇa is understood more technically, as it is presented within the broader context of other types of breath (eGangotri 2017, p. 24), such as apāna, samāna, udāna, and vyāna (see respective entries).

The actual pronunciation of the form in Persian poses a number of problems. As reading *parān seems to be excluded on the basis of the meter, we should probably accept the initial consonant cluster pr-, as other examples in the text encourage us to do that (see e.g., pranaw/parnaw: A.65).

It is worth noticing that a number of Perso-Arabic words are used in the text as equivalents of prān, namely bād, nafas and dam. An interesting passage is found in v. 326ff: “[It is] as if the breath (wind) played with your lips|It produces Persian (language), Turkish and Arabic [in your mouth]” (bā lab-i tu bād čū bāzī kunad|fārsī-u turkī-u tāzī kunad: eGangotri 2017, p. 33). Additionally, the sounds of many different animals are produced by the very same bād (eGangotri 2017, p. 33), with the breath said to have descended to become the four Vedas (eGangotri 2017, p. 33). See also Barahman (Section 3.4).

3.14. Raj

S. rajas refers to “(…) vapour, mist, clouds, gloom, dimness, darkness (…) (in phil[osophy]) the second of the three Guṇas or qualities (the other two being sattva, goodness, and tamas, darkness (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 863). Indeed, the remaining two guṇas are mentioned as sat and tam together with raj, and they are equated with the Muslim mystic concepts of ījād “creation”, fanā’ “annihilation in the divine” and baqā’ “persistence in the divine” (Gandhi 2019).

3.15. Rukha(y)šīr

The meaning of the form is clear. It is an equivalent of S. ṛṣi (Gandhi 2019), especially as it appears in the suitable context: “Prāṇa which is over (lit. on) the form of this world|Seven ṛṣis are its close companions.” (prān ki bar sūrat-i īn ālam ast|haft rukha(y)šīr ki ba ū ham-dam ast: eGangotri 2017, p. 23). According to Gandhi, this form is used in Hindavi and it is a typical way how ṛṣi would be rendered in Persian (Gandhi 2020a). It is, indeed, attested in some other sources, e.g., in James Skinner’s book on the peoples of India, which was written in Persian, we find a phrase “by the prayer of the ṛṣis” (ba du’ā-i rukha(y)šīrān: Skinner 1825, p. 123). However, the etymology of this form seems unclear to us. It may be ultimately related to the S. form, possibly with the change of ṣ to kh (cf. Upanīkhat Section 3.19), but we are not able to say much more about it at the moment.

3.16. Sankalp

S. saṃkalpa refers to “(…) conception or idea or notion formed in the mind or heart, (esp.) will, volition, desire, purpose, definite intention or determination or decision or wish for (…), sentiment, conviction, persuasion (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 1125). In Om-nāma there seems to be an interesting, subtle relationship between sankalp and the Perso-Arabic term maqsūd, which has a range of meanings like “Intended, proposed, desired, wished, sought; intention, design, aim, view, purpose, drift, desire, scope, object (…)” (Steingass 1892, p. 1294). We find an interesting fragment in v. 1108–1113 “Rightly Rāmaćandra asked the yogi:|If there are no names, then what are these names?|[He] said, it is a necessity for you, [but] not a [true] benefit|[They exist only] to let you understand your destination (maqsūd)|The meaning of the [term] sankalp is empty (destitute)|Movement of the heart in search of multitude.” (eGangotri 2017, p. 61) In other words, sankalp is empty mental attempt that causes separation and diversity, while maqsūd is the real goal, the Absolute.

3.17. Šīw

The Hindu god Šīw (S. Śiva, s. Monier-Williams 1899, p. 1074) appears in Om-nāma quite frequently, either under his proper name or referred to by epithets like Mahēšūr (<S. Maheśvara, s. Monier-Williams 1899, p. 802) or Mahādēw (<S. Mahādeva, s. Monier-Williams 1899, p. 796). He is primarily depicted as the member of Trimūrti, besides Brahmā and Viṣṇu, as the god associated with mahā-parlay (q.v.) or fanā’.

He is also mentioned in the fragment, where Pārwati (q.v.) asks him, as her husband, about the nature of the strange sound she can hear and, apart from that, in the v. 630, where yogi Vasiṣṭha describes the vision he had as the result of the practice referred to using the name murāqib (term of Arabic origin < murāqaba).

The form Mahēšūr is particularly interesting from the linguistic point of view. In Om-nāma, whose author was extremely careful not to violate the meter of any verse, we would expect for this form a scansion like ⌣ ― ― ⌣ or ⌣ ― – ⌣. This is impossible in the case of Mahēšwar. However, Ma-hē-šūr, based on or influenced by the Kashmiri variant of the name, i.e., Mahēshǒr (Grierson 1932, p. 557), fits perfectly well.

3.18. Svapan

S. svapna means “sleep, sleeping (…)” (Monier-Williams 1899, p. 1280). The form used in Om-nāma: svapan (reconstructed using the supplementary data provided by the metrical structure of the text) does not seem to be derived directly from the S. one, but could be based on or at least influenced by its descendant in some later Indo-Aryan language, possibly Kashmiri, where we find variants like sp^an and sǒpan (Grierson 1932, p. 926). Additionally, svapan/swapan can be found in other Indic languages and in onomastic material (as a personal name) (Gandhi 2020a).

The word svapna appears in a number of places in the text. First of all, its meaning is explicitly explained by its Persian equivalent in v 71: “‘sleep’ is the meaning of the word svapna” (xwāb buwad ma’nī-i lafz-i svapan: eGangotri 2017, p. 23). Subsequently, the text introduces a folk etymology for the form, explaining it as a compound of the elements sva “self” and pan “to find”, with the whole form meaning “finding the self at the time of sleep” (yāftan-i xwud ki buwad waqt-i xwāb: eGangotri 2017, p. 23).

An individual beginning their yogic exercises is urged to “make the confusion of sleep go away” (dūr kun az xwēš šar-u šūr-i nawm: eGangotri 2017, p. 22), yet conversely, the practitioner is encouraged to sleep (xwāb kun-u xwāb kun-[u] xwāb kun: eGangotri 2017, p. 23).

In v. 80ff., four types of sleep are introduced (čār buwad bahr-i tu aqsām-i xwāb: eGangotri 2017, p. 23), which seem to closely correspond to the four categories of sleep or consciousness (jāgrat, svāpna, suṣupti, turīya) in the Hindu traditions (Chenet 2017, p. 475)10 and, more specifically, to those in the Vedānta (Gandhi 2020a).

Sleep is recalled a number of times in similar contexts during the discussion on breathing, e.g., in v. 2080–210: “From the breath of all the wild animals and birds|flows this breath incessantly|Those asleep and awake are all equal in this” (az nafas-i jumla wuhūš-u tuyūr|mī-kunad īn dam ba-hamīša murūr|xufta-wu bīdār barābar dar īn: eGangotri 2017, p. 28).

We have to notice here that the Persian word xwāb (modern xāb) is used in the text quite often as a synonym for svapna. This Persian form is not unknown in northern India, as it is attested as a loanword in Hindi (Caturvedi 1970, p. 165), as well as in Urdu (Platts 1884, p. 494) and Kashmiri (Grierson 1932, p. 390).

3.19. Upanīkhat

S. Upaniṣad. The change of ṣ > kh is quite typical in Sirr-i Akbar by prince Darā Šikoh, e.g., suṣumnā > sukhumnā, manuṣya > mankha etc. (Sakaki 1989, pp. 972–73) and generally in Braj of the epoch (from where they were often borrowed into Persian), see, e.g., variations like ṣāḍava/khāḍav, niṣāda/nikhād, ṛṣabha/rikhab, ṛṣi/rikhī (Fallahzadeh 2022, pp. 57–59).

Upaniṣads are invoked as a source of authority a number of times in Om-nāma, both under this title or as Sirr-i Akbar, see e.g., “Learn this spiritual path from the Upaniṣads” (az upanīxat tu bixān īn tariq: eGangotri 2017, p. 43) and “Hear again the message from Sirr-i Akbar|There are two more parts from this part.” (bāz šinaw az Sirr-i Akbar xabar|hast az īn qism du qism-i digar: eGangotri 2017, p. 36).

4. Conclusions

As we can see, there is a considerable number of forms of Indic origin in the text of Om-nāma. The vocabulary of the poem diverges significantly from that of the classical Persian poetry. The words of Indic origin constitute almost 5% of the text. The Indic forms are almost exclusively nouns (including proper names), although some may be the basis for creation of compound verbs, e.g., pūjā kardan. To provide a point of reference, let us say that the vocabulary of Arabic origin constitutes almost 20% of the lexemes in the text. Taking this into consideration and remembering how strong influence Arabic had on New Persian, the 5% is significant. Moreover, the statistical rate does not reveal the real importance of the lexemes of Indic origin in Om-nāma. We have to remember that these are either proper names or key religious/philosophical concepts of the work.

The distribution of the forms of Indic origin is not uniform. There are long fragments of the text without any Indic loanwords whatsoever (e.g., v. 245–293), while it is also possible to indicate a small number of lines where Indic vocabulary dominates over Perso-Arabic (e.g., v. 411, 842, 844). As a result, some of its parts are not understandable to experts on Persian Classical literature with no expertise on Indic culture. On the other hand, the overwhelming majority of the vocabulary of the text is of Persian and Perso-Arabic origin and so is the syntax, morphology, and word-formational profile of the text. In other words, it requires good knowledge of Persian to understand it too.

It must be noted that it is difficult in most cases to indicate a particular Indo-Aryan language as the immediate source of a given form. While the origins of most of them can be ultimately traced to Sanskrit, many must have passed through a filter of another lect. We have to remember that Om-nāma is not a literal translation of Yoga-Vāsiṣṭha, so it cannot automatically be assumed that the Indic forms in the text are taken directly from Sanskrit.

Moreover, the literary landscape of India in the Mughal epoch was notably multilingual (Busch 2014, p. 186). With reference to his other works, the supposed author of the Om-nāma, Banwālīdās Walī himself, declared that he had translated them from the Hindavī language (Gandhi 2019). Unfortunately, it is not clear what he meant by this statement. One of the options is Braj (Brajbhāṣā), a very important literary language of the epoch, especially given that there are reasons to believe that some of his renditions of Sanskrit texts were translated not directly but via this language (Busch 2014, p. 199). However, in many cases the possibility cannot be excluded that there was an immediate source which was another Indic language. It could have been another northern Indic lect, such as a variety of early Hindi or even Kashmiri, as there are certain indications that the Om-nāma might have been composed in Kashmir (Gandhi 2019) as it is known that Banwālīdās Walī spent some time living there (ibid.) This seems to be supported by possible Kashmiri traits in the forms like svapan, Mahešūr, etc.

The situation gets even more complicated as the Perso-Arabic is deficient in its marking of vowels and lacks letters for many sounds specific to Indic languages, such as the retroflex consonants, nasal vowels, etc. (the notable exception in the eGangotri manuscript is the use of the special letter for the retroflex <ṭ> in the proper name Basišṭ, taken most probably from Kashmiri or Urdu orthography).

A striking feature of the text is that some words, especially those with relatively high frequency, tend to appear in a number of variants, e.g., atmā/ātmā, Barahman/Braham/ Brahm/Brahmā, etc. Some of these differences are shown clearly even in the Perso-Arabic script, while others (e.g., parnaw/pranaw) are not and remain just a possibility, supported by the meter analysis. In some cases, particular variants might have originated from different inflection forms, or even might be taken from different languages, e.g., Sanskrit vs. early Hindi. The question is why do these variations occur? Our hypothesis is that this is a mechanism that the author of Om-nāma used to make his poem fit better the prosodic pattern of the sarī’ meter.

It should be noted at this point that the practice of introducing numerous foreign words into poems written in Persian is not an unknown phenomenon and by no means restricted to India. For historic, cultural and religious reasons, in most cases Persian was mixed with Arabic. However, this is not the only possibility, as the famous works of Jalāl ud-Dīn Rūmī employ Turkish and Greek words (or even longer fragments) interwoven into the Persian text. In fact, special types of macaronic poems known as molamma’āt (bilingual) and mosallasāt (trilingual) are recognized in Classical Persian literature (Daneshpajuh 1382, p. 30), and even if molamma’ is primarily a Perso-Arabic poem (Ibid.) the term is also used in cases when other languages are mixed with Persian (see, e.g., Thiesen 1892, p. 227).

Outside the mainstream classical literature, interesting examples are provided by certain examples of Judeo-Persian literature, in which Persian lexica (including loanwords from Arabic) are supplemented with Hebrew forms, even if, rather surprisingly, some works do not follow this pattern (Gindin 2009).

If we have a look at forms Barahman/Braham/Brahm/Brahmā in Om-nāma, we notice immediately that they differ a lot in both number and weight of syllables (respectively: ⌣ ― ―, ⌣ ―, – ⌣, ― ―). It is striking that in almost every case, a variant chosen is the one complying with the metrical structure of the verse. While authors of Classical Persian poems with significant components in foreign languages (other than Arabic) often showed a very liberal attitude to their metrical values. The examples of Greek in Jalāl-ud-Dīn Rūmī’s works are particularly significant in this context. As Thiesen notes, “Demotic Greek does not easily adapt itself to the rules of Classical Persian prosody. The structure of the Greek lines is rather loose. This influences the Persian lines of the poem, and Moulavi takes liberties with the metre which he does not permit himself elsewhere” (Thiesen 1892, p. 128). It seems that Banwālīdās Walī made a lot of effort to preserve the perfect meter in his work. This observation is of immense importance for the analysis of the text, as reliable metrical structure offers hints on reading, where Perso-Arabic script fails (short vowels, izāfat marker).

Om-nāma is a fascinating example of the bringing together of the mystic language of two different traditions. The complex nature of its content is clearly reflected by the use of hybrid (Indic and Islamicate) terminology. And, without any doubt, the author demonstrates his competence regarding both Indian yogic vocabulary and the idiom of Persian mystic poetry. He would certainly never let himself write something similar to the verses of Amir Khusrau Dehlawi, who urged his companions to burn his body in the fire of Parsees, confusing the Hindu and Zoroastrian funeral rites (Schimmel 1992, p. 117).

The eclectic character of the vocabulary of the Om-nāma is multidimensional. It is not only a mixture of terminology belonging to different religious and philosophical traditions, but it is also a hybrid in the sense that its linguistic origins are heterogeneous and quite complicated. In numerous cases the author uses certain Indic and Perso-Arabic words as synonyms (e.g., giyān:ma’rifat, prān:bād, nafas, dam, etc.) Such a usage implies the author believed that there is a certain parallelism between the two traditions. However, this is not only about equivalence and translating terms from one language to another. In fact, there are some terms within the vocabulary of the Om-nāma for which no equivalents are provided (e.g., dhauti on the Indic side and may, bāda “wine”, a very important feature of Persian mystic imagery). Let us also note that the forms taken from both traditions are brought together to create a coherent system. In this system, the sacred syllable Om (a clearly Hindu concept) is one of the names of the Absolute Truth–Haq(q) (a Muslim term). Therefore, Om becomes the object of zikr (a Sufi ritual practice, lit. “remembrance”). Gyān (gnosis, [secret‘ knowledge) is a synonym of ma’rifat. In this spiritual world a disciple follows a spiritual guide (muršid, pīr—Sufi concepts) who is a jōg or yogin. Under his supervision, the disciple has to practice murāqib, a Sufi practice of visualization (Gandhi 2019), but also yogic dhauti.

One can also notice one more aspect of the text in question: In the countries of Islamicate culture (Iran included), there is a centuries-old tradition of composing commentaries and other auxiliary works that facilitate the understanding of canonical texts (such as the Qur’an, but also others). Omnāma can be seen as one of the expressions of this tradition, adapted to texts originating from Indian culture.

Banwālīdās Walī followed his own spiritual path, taking from both traditions the words and imagery best suited to express his ideas and is certainly far from orthodoxy in both cases. One of the sources preserving some of his biographical data, Dabistān-i Mazāhib, declares that he “is well acquainted with the idol and the idol temple, neither is he a stranger to the mosque” (Gandhi 2020b, p. 94). Therefore, it is difficult to find a better motto for his mystic pursuit than the words ascribed to the Mughal prince, Dārā Šukoh, in a modern theatrical play: “Who cares which door you open to come into the light?” (Gandhi 2020b, p. 1).