Zhuangzi’s De 德 and Transcendence: The Temporal Order of “Ten Suns Rose in the Sky at Once” in the Qiwu lun 齊物論

Abstract

The phrase shiri bing chu 十日並出 (ten suns rose in the sky at once) from the Qiwu lun 齊物論 can also be interpreted as shiri dai chu 十日代出 (ten suns alternately appearing). Here, “ten suns rose in the sky at once” is not merely a spatial concept but also a temporal one. Thus, the concept of De 德 (virtue), connected to the idea of “ten suns shining together,” is a transcendent force with its own inner sense of time. It acts as the foundation for all things to exist and grow continuously. Under the endless cycle of day and night and the nourishing power of tiande 天德 (heavenly virtue), everything flourishes according to its true nature. Here, De combines two aspects: mingde 明德 (luminous virtue) and xuande 玄德 (inconspicuous virtue). “luminous virtue” focuses on order and building, highlighting the uniqueness within human growth. “inconspicuous virtue” emphasizes harmony and equalizing with all things, revealing our shared connection with the world. These two concepts are not opposites. The highest goal of luminous virtue lies in mysterious virtue, which itself contains the roots of luminous virtue. Both work together to reflect the natural flow of the Dao 道 (the Way), thus demonstrating that Zhuangzi’s philosophy is not merely about criticism or deconstruction—it has a deeply constructive side. Virtue transcends both individuality and universality. Human nature holds both virtues. By balancing the order of growth and equalizing with all things, we can harmonize our uniqueness with our shared bonds, revealing our true value in both action and spirit.

1. Introduction

De 德 (virtue) stands as one of the most pivotal concepts in pre-Qin thought. Li Zehou李澤厚 notes that the original meaning of De remains unclear and warrants rigorous scholarly investigation (Z. Li 2008, pp. 156–88). Chen Lai 陈來similarly underscores the conceptual complexity of De in ancient China, noting that it transcends modern notions of “virtue” as a purely inward moral quality (Chen 1996, 2002). Through philological methodologies—including paleography, phonology, hermeneutics, and textual criticism—scholars such as Onozawa Seiichi (Onozawa Seiichi 1968, pp. 151–84) and Zheng Kai 鄭開 (Zheng 2009, pp. 244–61) have traced De’s intricate etymological lineage, revealing its polysemous usage and contextual dependence. In essence, De encompasses political, religious, ethnic, social, and other dimensions, demonstrating rich internal distinctions from modern conceptions of morality. In the Qiwu lun 齊物论 (Equalizing Assessments of Things), Zhuangzi further associates De with the cosmological motif of shiri bing chu 十日並出 (ten suns rose in the sky at once):

In ancient times Yao asked Shun, “I want to attack Zong, Kuai, and Xu’ao. For though I sit facing south on the throne, still I am not at ease. Why is this?” 故昔者堯問於舜曰：“我欲伐宗、膾、胥敖，南面而不釋然。其故何也？”

Shun said, “Though these three may continue to dwell out among the bushes and grasses, why should this make you ill at ease? Once upon a time ten suns rose in the sky at once, and the ten thousand things were all simultaneously illuminated. And how much better are multiple virtuosities than multiple suns?” 舜曰：“夫三子者，猶存乎蓬艾之間。若不釋然，何哉？昔者十日並出，萬物皆照，而況德之進乎日者乎！” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 18).

Interpretations of this chapter by scholars across dynasties have been fraught with ambiguity and debate, particularly regarding the phrase shiri bing chu, wanwu jie zhao十日並出，萬物皆照 (ten suns rose in the sky at once, and the ten thousand things were all simultaneously illuminated). These disagreements profoundly influence the understanding of Zhuangzi’s conception of De.1 Our inquiry revolves around the relationship between Zhuangzi’s opinions on virtue and the imagery of ten suns rose in the sky at once: how should we interpret the temporal order embedded in this cosmic phenomenon and the transcendent nature of virtue? Specifically, how do mingde 明德 (luminous virtue) and xuande 玄德 (inconspicuous virtue) embody transcendence? In what ways is this transcendence manifested? What is the relationship between the human self and these two modalities of virtue? To address these questions, we will focus on the line from the Qiwu lun 齊物論 (Equalizing Assessments of Things): “Once upon a time ten suns rose in the sky at once, and the ten thousand things were all simultaneously illuminated. And how much better are multiple virtuosities than multiple suns?” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 18) Through a close analysis of this passage, we aim to illuminate these philosophical concerns.

2. Annotations on “Ten Suns Rose in the Sky at Once” by Commentators Across Dynasties and Their Assessments of De Derived Therefrom

The annotations on shiri bing chu by commentators across dynasties and their assessments of De derived therefrom can be categorized as follows:

(1)

Brilliant Vastness—Praising the Sagely virtue of Emperor Yao

The first interpretation posits that the “ten suns rose in the sky at once” signifies a radiant vastness illuminating all things across heaven, earth, and the four directions. The phrase “er kuang De zhi jin hu ri zhe hu 而況德之進乎日者乎” (And how much better are multiple virtuosities than multiple suns?) forms a parallel structure with this imagery, wherein De2 is understood as extolling the sagely moral authority of Emperor Yao. Both the “shiri bing chu” and the act of zhao 照 (illumination), in addition to De itself, carry unequivocally positive connotations. Guo Xiang 郭象 (252–312), a Jin dynasty 晉代 Neo-Daoist (xuanxue 玄學) scholar, annotated this passage as follows: “When Doubly Bright [chongming 重明] ascends to the heavens, its light illuminates all six directions [liuhe 六合]; there is no plant, not even the bushes and grasses [pengai 蓬艾], that is not bathed in its radiance” 夫重明登天，六合俱照，無有蓬艾而不光被也 (Q. Guo 2012, p. 90, my translation). In this framework, his understanding of De is that De ze wu bu de ye 德则無不得也 (With virtue, nothing remains unattained)—a supreme Dao that surpasses even the radiance of the ten suns in its brilliance and universality. The above exemplifies Guo’s exegetical strategy; whenever addressing figures such as Yao or Confucius, he jiyan chuyi 寄言出意 (expressing the Sage’s Intent through Classical Discourse) to reconcile Daoist cosmology with the moral authority of Confucian paragons. Cheng Xuanying 成玄英，a Tang dynasty 唐代 Daoist scholar, adhering to the principle of shu bu po zhu疏不破註 (sub-commentaries not contradicting source annotations), elaborated on Guo Xiang’s interpretation as follows: “Though the ten suns ascend to illuminate all six directions [liuhe六合], even a basin overturned to hide something may escape their light. Yet where sagely virtue prevails, no darkness remains unlit. By wielding this twofold wisdom [erzhi二智], virtue outshines even the light of sun, moon, stars [sanguang三光]. How, then, could launching military campaigns to enforce compliance align with the principle of effortless governance [an ren zhi dao安任之道]?” 夫十日登天，六合俱照，覆盆隱處，猶有不明；而聖德所臨，無幽不燭，運兹二智，過彼三光。乃欲興動干戈，伐令從己，於安任之道，豈曰弘通者耶？ (Guo and Cheng 1998, pp. 47–48, my translation).

Later commentators largely followed the interpretive path laid by Guo and Cheng. By the Song dynasty宋代, the phrase “shiri bing zhao 十日並照 (ten suns illuminating together)”3 had solidified into a fixed rhetorical device for extolling the virtue of emperors, reflecting its entrenchment in imperial political discourse.

(2)

Boundless Luminosity—In Praise of Zhuangzi’s virtue4 Dissolving the Dualities of Right and Wrong

The second interpretation also affirms the positive connotations of radiance and universality in the phrase “shiri bing chu, wanwu jie zhao” 十日並出，萬物皆照. However, it diverges from the first interpretation in its identification of the referent for De in “er kuang De zhi jin hu ri zhe hu” 而況德之進乎日者乎. Here, De is understood in Zhuangzi’s sense as the tianfu 天府 (The Heavenly Reservoir)5, which gives rise to baoguang 葆光 (The Preservation of Enlightenment). However, this De is not fully embodied by Yao. Yao’s luminous image is subtly demoted in this context. Wang Fuzhi 王夫之 (1619–1692), a philosopher of the Qing dynasty 清代, posited the following: “When ten suns illuminate together, there are no distinctions of “subject” and “object,” no boundaries of “small” and “great,” and no judgments of “right” and “wrong.”. This is the ‘the light out of darkness’ [gu yi zhi yao 滑疑之耀], which does not exhaust the divine clarity in fixating on a single standard. The suns, positioned at heaven’s center, are but transient vessels of heaven’s function. virtue, as the Reservoir of Heaven, merely lodges the suns within itself. If Yao were to contend over right and wrong with the three rulers Zong, Kuai and Xu’Ao—who persist like weeds among the mugwort—then Yao himself would be reduced to the level of mugwort” 十日並照，無彼是也，無小大也，無是非也，滑疑之耀，不勞神明於一以爲明者也。日在天之中，而爲天所寓之庸耳。德爲天府，則十日亦其寄焉耳。若三子存乎蓬艾之間，而與較是非，則堯與蓬艾類矣 (F. Wang 2009, p. 98, my translation).

This passage synthesizes the ideas of “yi tianming zhao tianjun以天明照天均” (illuminating the natural equilibrium with heavenly radiance) and “bian zhao zhi ming yao yu liu he遍照之明耀于六合矣” (universal illumination that brightens all six realms) into the concept of “gu yi zhi yao 滑疑之耀” (the light out of darkness), wherein the metaphysical and the physical, the absolute and the relative, interpenetrate and coalesce (F. Wang 2009, p. 95, my translation). The other scholar of the Qing dynasty named Lin Yunming 林云銘 (1628–1697), in his Zhuangzi yin 莊子因 (Interpretations of Zhuangzi), argued the following: “The contemporary discourse about losing selfhood (sangwo 喪我) seeks to rest in unknowingness (zhi zhi qi suo bu zhi 知止其所不知), thereby harmonizing binary oppositions. Is this not the essence of ‘equalizing all theories on things’ (wu lun zhi qi 物论之齊)?” 夫葆光者，德之所由成，積厚流光，自然無物不照，區區是非，總不足入其胸次，舜之告堯是已。今日之喪我，亦欲知止其所不知，以渾同是非之言。物論之齊，非以此哉？(Lin 2011, p. 22, my translation).

Both critiques implicitly reproach Yao for his fixation on moral distinctions, framing Zhuangzi’s De as distinct from Confucian virtue through its “dissolution of dualities” (hun tong shi fei 渾同是非). This interpretive tension highlights the inherent conflict between the Confucian “mingde 明德” (luminous virtue), which seeks ethical clarity, and the Daoist “xuande 玄德” (inconspicuous virtue), which embraces ambiguity and transcends binary oppositions.

(3)

All Things Scorched—Critiquing the Harm of Yao and Shun’s bade 霸德 (Hegemonic virtue)

If the first two interpretations treat “shiri bing chu, wanwu jie zhao 十日並出，萬物皆照” and De as positive symbols, the third interpretation stands in stark opposition. Here, the “ten suns rose in the sky at once” results in “all things scorched” (wan wu jie zhuo 萬物皆灼), with vegetation withered and burned. The so-called De is reconfigured as a bade 霸德 (hegemonic virtue)—a form of cultural colonization forcibly imposed by Yao upon smaller states. This reading is primarily championed by Zhang Taiyan 章太炎 (1869–1936), scholar and revolutionary intellectual of the late Qing. Within Zhang’s socio-historical context, the feeble China of his time parallels the vulnerable states of Zong, Kuai, and Xu’ao may continue to dwell out among the bushes and grasses while the imperialist powers encroaching upon weaker nations are allegorized as Yao and his counterpart Shun, whose De ostensibly surpasses even the ten suns’ illumination. The above explains Zhang’s intense focus on this chapter of Zhuangzi. Despite the Qiwu lun’s broad applicability to diverse philosophical issues, Zhang fixates on the metaphor of “bushes and grasses” (pengai 蓬艾) as the crux of his critique. He further draws on historical analogies to investigate the distinction between the civilized and the barbaric (wen ye zhi bian 文野之辯), deconstructing the moral pretensions of hegemonic powers. He states the following：”In this era, those who invade states and seize cities are found everywhere. Even those esteemed Confucians (daru 大儒) are still deluded by such acts. Yet when we turn to Zhuangzi, he alone can expose their hidden malice (yinte 隐慝), despite their lofty claims of “civilizing conquest and eradicating states” (wenming mieguo 文明滅國)” 今之伐國取邑者，所在皆是，以彼大儒，尚復蒙其眩惑，反觀莊生，則雖文明滅國之名，猶能破其隱慝也 (T. Zhang 2017, vol. 6, p. 100, my translation).

This critique is undeniably incisive. Here, Yao—who sought to attack Zong, Kuai, and Xu’ao—and Shun—his counselor—are stripped of their halos as sagely paragons, emerging instead as hypocritical figures who harbor expansionist ambitions yet cloak themselves in the lofty rhetoric of moral instruction to manipulate the public. Both the imagery of “Once upon a time ten suns rose in the sky at once, and the ten thousand things were all simultaneously illuminated.” (shiri bing chu, wanwu jie zhao 十日並出，萬物皆照) and the notion of “How much better are multiple virtuosities than multiple suns?” (er kuang De zhi jin hu ri zhe hu 而況德之进進日者乎) are relegated to their nadir, transformed into a semblance for cultural colonization. In stark contrast with Yao and Shun stands Zhuangzi, who tears away the veil of hypocrisy and advocates the equalizing of all things (qiwu 齊物) (T. Zhang 2017, vol. 6, p. 100). This rhetorical strategy of elevating Zhuangzi while diminishing Yao is saturated with Zhang Taiyan’s political aspirations and his contextual critique of early 20th-century imperialism. Since the turn of the 21st century, contemporary scholar Wang Yubin 王玉彬echoes this view, synthesizing earlier scholarship to conduct a meticulous dialectical analysis of the chapter. By tracing the historical evolution of sagely king narratives and contextualizing the “Ten Suns” metaphor, he reveals how Zhuangzi’s philosophy of “equalizing things” (qiwu 齊物) gestures toward a “governance and political order transcending Yao and Shun” (Y. Wang 2015, p. 20).

In summary, both prior interpretations perceive “Once upon a time ten suns rose in the sky at once, and the ten thousand things were all simultaneously illuminated.” (shiri bing chu, wanwu jie zhao 十日並出，萬物皆照) as a profoundly positive vision—where their simultaneous emergence embodies vast radiance universally permeating creation. The distinction resides in their conceptualization of De: the first interpretation celebrates it as “Yao’s virtue” saturated with Confucian ideals glorifying sage-kingship, while the second exalts it as “Zhuangzi’s virtue,” distinguished by its harmonization of binary oppositions and thus fundamentally diverging from Confucian ethics. Contrastingly, the third interpretation frames this phenomenon as a destructive image—ten suns scorching the world into desolation—with its corresponding De manifesting as bade 霸德 (hegemonic virtue) emblematic of cultural imperialism. The following

Table 1. Evaluative Tendencies of Historical Interpretations.

	shiri bing chu 十日並出 (ten suns rose in the sky at once)	wanwu jie zhao 萬物皆照 (the ten thousand things were all simultaneously illuminated)	De 德(virtue)
A	+	+	+ Yao’s virtue (Confucian)
B	+	+	+ Zhuangzi’s virtue (Anti-Normative)
C	−	−	− Hegemonic virtue (Imperialistic)

synthesizes these three readings, employing (+) for affirmative valuations and (−) for negative assessments.

3. The Immanent Temporal Order of “Ten Suns Rose in the Sky at Once” and the Transcendence of Virtue

As previously discussed, while various scholarly interpretations conflict with one another, they generally understand “ten suns rose in the sky at once” (shiri bing chu 十日並出) as ten celestial bodies simultaneously appearing in the spatial sense, which relates to the core narrative of the ten suns myth. By examining debates surrounding this myth (S. Lu 1935; Cui 2009; Liu 2013), we find two distinct interpretative orientations in the textual records.

The first, represented by the Shan Hai Jing 山海經 (The Classic of Mountains and Seas), can be summarized as “ten suns alternately appearing” (shiri dai chu 十日代出), devoid of any pejorative connotations. Another interpretation, represented by the Huainanzi, describes “ten suns rising together” (shiri bing chu 十日並出) with connotations of a disaster narrative, closely linked to the myth of Houyi shooting down the suns. From this, we can reflect on the myth of the ten suns to explore another possible understanding of “shiri bing chu”: one that embodies an inherent temporal order. Guo Pu郭璞 states the following: “Zhuangzi once said, ‘In ancient times, ten suns rose together, scorching all vegetation.’ “莊周云：昔者十日並出，草木焦枯 (S. Wang 2007, p. 79, my translation). This passage has traditionally been regarded as a lost fragment from Zhuangzi, suggesting the existence of such a textual variant prior to the Jin dynasty. Wang Yubin argues that unless this reflects deficiencies in Guo Pu’s memory, it might derive from a different chapter of Zhuangzi, an alternative version of the text, an earlier scholar’s commentary, or Guo’s personal exegesis (Y. Wang 2015, p. 19). However, none of these possibilities suffice to conclusively align Zhuangzi with the Huainanzi’s disaster narrative, treating “ten suns rose in the sky at once, scorching vegetation” (shiri bing chu, cao mu jiao ku 十日並出，草木焦枯) as definitive evidence. Guan Donggui 管東貴 meticulously analyzes historical records of both “Ten Suns Alternately Appearing” and “ten suns rose in the sky at once,” proposing that both versions likely coexisted during the Warring States period. By identifying shared elements—the “ten suns” and the “sun-crow” (jinwu 金烏) theme—he argues for their essential unity: the “ten suns rose in the sky at once” represent the same celestial bodies as those in the “ten suns alternately appearing” narrative (Guan 1962). Further textual investigation reveals another interpretation of “ten suns rose in the sky at once” as the ten-day cyclical calendar system, a variation in the “ten suns alternately appearing” concept. As Fang Yizhi 方以智notes in the yaodi pao zhuang 藥地炮莊 (The Critique of Zhuangzi by Master Yaodi): “The ten suns refer to the sequence from jia 甲 to gui 癸 (which are symbols of time series in the ten celestial stems) 十日，從甲至癸也... ‘multiple virtuosities than multiple suns’ speaks of governing through obscurity’ 德進于日’，言用晦也.” (Fang 2019, p. 170, my translation).

The Shang dynasty already employed the ten-day cycle system. Scholarly research traces its historical development as follows (H. Wang 2003, pp. 39–40; G. Zhang 1999, pp. 203–27; Song 1985, pp. 33–40; 2005, pp. 771–89; J. Guo 2023, pp. 125–32):

• The Age of Chieftainship: Tribal alliances adopted the “ten sun progenitors” as symbols of political covenants.
• Xia Dynasty Subversion: The father–son rulers of Xia夏 created “The Sun-Shooting Myth” to replace the earlier divine tree (fusang 扶桑) ten suns narrative, suppressing the power of the “ten sun progenitors” aristocratic groups.
• Shang Revival: The emperor Tang (Chengtang 成汤) restored the ten suns’ divine authority, implementing the “ten celestial stems” (shigan ji ri 十干紀日) calendrical system and ten-day mourning rituals as tools of political consolidation.

Thus, we find that interpretations of “ten suns rose in the sky at once” (shiri bing chu 十日並出) are inherently fluid—it need not exclusively denote a spatial simultaneity of ten suns appearing at once but may also imply a temporal rhythm of alternate emergence (daichu 代出). Specifically, within Zhuangzi’s textual corpus, frequent references to “the alternation of day and night” (ri ye xiang dai 日夜相代) and “the transformative cycles of sun and moon” (ri gai yue hua 日改月化) resonate with the myth of “ten suns alternating at fusang” (fusang shiri xiang dai 扶桑十日相代) and the calendrical system of “Ten Celestial Stems” (shigan ji ri 十干纪日). Moreover, Shun is not confined to the singular image of a ruler “inclined toward military conquest” (Zhao and Guo 2020). As the Tiandao天道 (Heaven’s Course) chapter states the following: “With the intrinsic virtuosity of the Heavenly, even what is put forth is tranquil and still. The sun and moon shine down and the four seasons come and go, just as day and night have their regular sequence, just as the clouds drift along and then the rain comes forth.” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 113).

This portrayal more closely aligns with Shun’s discourse in the “ten suns rose in the sky at once” passage. Here, “ten suns rose in the sky at once, and the ten thousand things were all simultaneously illuminated.“ embodies the “day and night have their regular sequence” (zhou ye zhi you jing 晝夜之有經) and “The sun and moon shine down and the four seasons come and go” (ri yue zhao er si shi xing 日月照而四時行). The phrase “How much better are multiple virtuosities than multiple suns?” (er kuang De zhi jin hu ri zhe hu 而況德之進乎日者乎) thus becomes a metaphor for “the intrinsic virtuosity of the Heavenly” (tiande 天德)—a constant virtue (hengde 恆德) that transcends temporal flux.

In summary, the concept of “ten suns rose in the sky at once” (shiri bing chu 十日並出) inherently carries the meaning of “ten suns alternately appearing” (shiri dai chu 十日代出). Here, “ten suns rose in the sky at once” is not merely a spatial metaphor but also a temporal one, embodying the immanent temporal order and generative vitality of daily succession. This touches upon the notion of temporal order, which does not refer to an abstract, homogeneous linear progression, but rather to the dynamic cyclical rhythms and growth patterns rooted in the primordial forces of the cosmos. It embodies the universe’s inherent state of being—a natural harmony that all things, including humanity, ought to emulate and align with. Ultimately, such temporal order enables the harmonious integration of all things in a spatial sense.

In this light, the virtuosities (De 德) in the phrase “how much better are multiple virtuosities than multiple suns?” (er kuang De zhi jin hu ri zhe hu 而況德之進乎日者乎) becomes a transcendent force—the intrinsic foundation for the survival and continuous growth of all things, including humanity. Under the ceaseless alternation of day and night and the nourishing radiance of the intrinsic virtuosity of the Heavenly (tiande 天德), all beings flourish in harmony with their innate nature. In the Shuowen Jiezi 說文解字 (Analytical Dictionary of Chinese Characters), Xu Shen許慎 denotes De 德 (virtue) as Sheng 升 (ascend). Many scholars interpret this as a phonetic loan (yinxun 音訓), given that De and Sheng shared the same Old Chinese phonological category in the Zhi 職 rhyme group, though they argue that De’s original semantic meaning is unrelated to “ascending.” However, Gui Fu桂馥, in his Shuowen Yizheng 說文義證 (Annotations on the Shuowen Jiezi), contends that “sheng 升 (ascend), deng 登 (climb), zhi 陟 (rise), de 得 (obtain), and De 德 (virtue) share identical semantic roots in ancient usage.” The Guangyun廣韻 (Rhyme Dictionary) further notes that the character sheng 昇 (a variant of ascend) originally denoted the “rising of the sun” (rishang 日上), as seen in the shijing詩經 (the Book of Songs): “Like the sun ascending” (ru ri zhi sheng 如日之升). Etymologically, sheng 升(ascend) is closely tied to transcendent celestial deities and ritual order in ancestral worship. Early texts also reveal De’s profound connection to Li禮 (ritual), imbuing it with religious solemnity and cosmological hierarchy (Yin 2014). The above suggests that the relationship between De and sheng may extend beyond mere phonetic borrowing. The motif of “Ten Suns Alternately Appearing” could thus reflect a deeper symbolic interplay between De’s transcendence and the ritualized, cyclical order of cosmic ascent—a connection more intricate than previously assumed.

Zhang Dainian 張岱年 posits that the Daoist concept of De does not denote human moral conduct but rather the intrinsic basis for the growth of all things: “When it is said that ‘things attain life through it’ or ‘things obtain their thusness from it,’ these refer to the internal foundation of existence. What Confucianism calls ‘nature’ (Xing 性), Daoism calls ‘virtue’ (De 德). We might say the following: the Way (Dao 道) denotes the universality shared by all things in heaven and earth, while virtue (De 德) signifies the distinct particularity inherent to each individual thing.” (D. Zhang 2017, pp. 612–13).

This interpretation finds resonance in the Tiandao 天道 (Heaven’s Course) chapter：”Well, heaven and earth have their own inherent regularity, just as the sun and moon have their own inherent brightness, the stars and constellations have their own inherent arrangement, the birds and beasts have their own inherent ways of flocking together, the trees and plants have their own inherent ways of standing themselves in place. “(Ziporyn 2020, p. 114).

In addition, it also finds resonance in the Tiandi 天地 (Heaven and Earth) chapter: “Accessing this, making it their own, things come to life; their appropriation of it is what is known as their intrinsic virtuosities.” (Ziporyn 2020, p. 102).

Furthermore, since De originates from and is inherent to the Dao, it also embodies the universal commonality of all things. Within Zhuangzi’s text, the dual connotations of De—as both the “internal foundation for the growth of all things” and the “distinct particularity of each being”—are unified in the context of “ten suns rose in the sky at once” (shiri bing chu 十日並出). Under the suns’ ceaseless, alternating illumination, all beings across heaven, earth, and the cosmos—whether the minor states of Zong, Kuai, and Xu’ao (existing like weeds in a thicket) or sage–kings like Yao and Shun—are perpetually bathed in this universal nourishment. Each being grows according to its unique nature without mutual interference, while heavenly virtue (tiande 天德) ensures cosmic harmony. The sage, attuned to the beauty of heaven and earth, aligns the heaven with heaven (yi Tian he Tian 以天合天). The ten suns emerge in succession; the four seasons follow their course. In this sense, Guo Xiang’s commentary on De can indeed be regarded as a profound insight.

4. The Transcendence of xuande 玄德 and mingde 明德 in Human Self-Cultivation

As previously established, De, as a transcendent force, serves as the immanent foundation for the survival and continuous growth of all beings, including humans. It can be differentiated into the transcendence of inconspicuous virtue (xuande 玄德) and luminous virtue (mingde 明德), both of which inherently necessitate human self-cultivation. The following questions arise: why must humans engage in self-cultivation? What is the relationship between xuande 玄德 (inconspicuous virtue), ming de明德 (luminous virtue), and this process?

The Shuowen Jiezi 說文解字 (Analytical Dictionary of Characters) denotes the archaic form of De 悳 (virtue) as “external attainment through others, internal attainment through the self (wai de yu ren，nei de yu ji，外得於人，内得於己).” From the Zhou dynasty onward, De increasingly became the cosmological basis for legitimizing political authority and dynastic continuity under the Mandate of Heaven (tianming 天命) while simultaneously evolving into a framework for individual moral cultivation. This dual trajectory reflects a philosophical tendency toward harmonizing the human with the cosmic (yi ren he Tian 以人合天). In Zhuangzi’s philosophical framework, De is inherently aligned with Tian 天 (Heaven), and humans achieve unity with heaven by harmonizing themselves with De. This process, encapsulated in the notion of “using De to correspond to Heaven” (yi De pei Tian以德配天), represents an attempt to transcend the limitations of human finitude. Such alignment serves as a pathway for self-cultivation or self-transcendence, where individuals move beyond their partial perspectives to embody the boundless harmony of cosmic order. Specifically, through cultivation practices like “xinzhai” 心齋 (Pure State of the Mind) and “zuowang” 坐忘 (Forget the Difference and Opposition Between Self and the Universe), the self dissolves the “chengxin” 成心 (completed form of minds) and “youdai” 有待 (conditional dependence). As advocated in the De Chong Fu 德充符 (Fragmentations Betokening Full Virtuosity), this leads to “De chong yu nei” 德充於内 (have your intrinsic virtuosities whole and intact) that transcends physical form, name, and status, progressing to the state of “wu sang wo” 吾喪我 (I have lost me). Ultimately, this individual’s realization and alignment with “tiande” 天德 (the intrinsic virtuosity of the Heavenly) elevates the spirit to the realm of the “zhenren”真人 (the Genuine Human)—namely, the transcendent state of “wu ji” 無己 (no definite identity), “wu gong” 無功 (no particular merit), and “wu ming” 無名 (no one name) described in the Xiaoyao You 逍遙遊 (Wandering Far and Unfettered).

This process of self-cultivation, in essence, constitutes a return to the inner foundation of the self. Therefore, the reason for human self-transcendence lies precisely in this return to one’s inherent nature, enabling one to become an authentic human being—not what Heidegger termed “das Man” (Heidegger 1967, p. 126). In Zhuangzi, the term De appears with diverse meanings. The complexity lies in its dual nature in Lao–Zhuang philosophy: in one instance, it carries a “beyond-moral dimension”; conversely, it functions as a “crucial evaluative term.” (Zheng 2018, pp. 371–88). This complexity necessitates careful contextual analysis to discern its specific implications. To address this challenge, scholars often turn to historical texts to categorize “virtue” into two distinct conceptual poles: the “inconspicuous virtue” (xuande 玄德) and “luminous virtue” (mingde 明德) (Zheng 2016, pp. 1–20; Zheng 2018, p. 407; Deng 2021). Synthesizing these dual dimensions, we may term such conceptual discourse the “Discourse of Luminosity” (guangming huayu 光明話語)6, which navigates the interplay between transcendent mystery and ethical illumination within Daoist philosophy.

Yet, the Discourse of Luminosity in Zhuangzi’s texts has yet to be examined systematically. By analyzing each chapter of the Inner, Outer, and Miscellaneous Writings of the Zhuangzi, we map the evaluative distribution of its “luminous” and “profound” rhetoric. In terms of content, we find no clear bias in the deployment or valence of “luminosity” (ming 明) versus “inconspicuousness” (xuan 玄)—each serves context-specific functions. Quantitatively, however, this neutrality dissolves into qualitative asymmetry: the “inconspicuous” (xuan 玄) consistently corrects or critiques the “luminous” (ming 明). For example, the parable of “The Death of Hundun 渾沌 (Chaotic blob)”:

The emperor of the southern sea was called Swoosh.The emperor ofthe northernsea was called Oblivion. The emperor of the middle was called Chaotic Blob.Swoosh and Oblivion would sometimes meet in the territory of Chaotic Blob, whoalways waited on them quite well. They decided to repay Chaotic Blob for suchbounteous virtue. “All men have seven holes in them, by means of which theysee, hear, eat, and breathe,” they said. “But this one alone has none. Let’s drilhim some.” So every day they drilled another hole. Seven days later, Chaotic Blob was dead. 南海之帝爲儵，北海之帝爲忽，中央之帝爲渾沌。儵與忽時相與遇於渾沌之地，渾沌待之甚善。儵與忽謀報渾沌之德，曰：”人皆有七竅以視聽食息。此獨无有，嘗試鑿之。”日鑿一竅，七日而渾沌死。 (Ziporyn 2020, p. 72).

Compared to external intellect, Zhuangzi holds a more positive attitude toward the inner spirit (Raphals 2023, p. 135). Within this asymmetrical context, there is another kind of ming 明 (vision) which often refers to a sensory-based cunning intellect or superficial cognition—as illustrated by phrases like the chapter in which Ghostless Saunter said the following：”the eye is endangered by keen vision” 目之於明也殆 (Ziporyn 2020, p. 205). This concept of ming cannot be directly equated with Confucian “luminous virtue” (mingde 明德). Pre-Qin philosophical valuations of “luminosity,” including those of Confucians and Daoists, stem from shared religious–cultural residues. To reductively frame this as a binary asymmetry would impoverish the conceptual richness of both traditions. In fact, Zhuangzi’s overall appraisal of “luminosity” remains positive, much like his contemporaries. Moreover, when viewed through the lens of “ten suns rose in the sky at once” (also “Ten Suns Alternately Appearing”), we find that virtue (De 德) in this case synthesizes both “luminous virtue” (mingde 明德) and “inconspicuous virtue” (xuande 玄德).

As discussed earlier, in a general sense, Yao’s virtue (Yaode 堯德) can be termed “luminous virtue” (mingde 明德), while Zhuangzi’s virtue (Zhuangde 莊德) represents “inconspicuous virtue” (xuande 玄德). Both possess transcendence, yet their expressions differ: luminous virtue transcends by establishing order and construction, emphasizing the particularity inherent in human growth, whereas inconspicuous virtue transcends through equalizing all things (qiwu 齊物) and cosmic coherence (huntong 渾同), emphasizing the universal commonality between humans and the myriad beings. The “ten suns rose in the sky at once” metaphor, however, integrates temporal order (alternate emergence [daichu 代出]) with spatial harmonization (equalizing things [qiwu 齊物] and cosmic attunement [hetian 合天]). The above reveals Zhuangzi’s thoughts as not merely critical or deconstructive but profoundly constructive—both formally and substantively. Such constructivity shares a primordial root with Confucian ideals of “radiant clarity” (mingming 明明), “splendor” (hehe 赫赫), “manifest brilliance” (pixian 丕显), and “illuminating virtue” (zhaoming 昭明), all subsumable under “luminous virtue.” (Jiang 1997, pp. 65–81, 173–74, 187–206; Rao 1990). In contrast, later discussions of De as “formless and nameless” (De bu xing 德不形) or “dissipated by fame” (De dang hu ming 德蕩乎名) juxtapose De against “form” (xing 形) and “name” (ming 名), clarifying the essence of “equalization as equalization” (qi wei zhi qi 齊之为齊). This concept aligns with inconspicuous virtue, which transcends the duality of particularity and universality. Thus, “ten suns rose in the sky at once” signifies not merely spatial undifferentiation (xuantong 玄同) but an existence imbued with immanent temporal order. This seemingly oxymoronic formulation underscores De’s transcendence beyond the particular and universal—a key distinction from Western “participation theories”.

Consequently, Zhuangzi’s epistemology is not Western-style epistemology but a self-reflexive, self-illuminating epistemology—a realm of “unconcealment” (chengming 澄明). It achieves epistemic transcendence (beyond sensory and rational faculties) precisely by negating conventional epistemology (grounded in sensation, concepts, inference, and judgment) (Uno 1978, p. 114; Raphals 1992, p. 70).

Consequently, the relationship between the human self and De (virtue) is as follows: human nature inherently embodies both “xuande 玄德” (inconspicuous virtue) and “mingde 明德” (luminous virtue). It possesses not only a commonality with all things but also its own distinctive essence. The connection between human self-transcendence and these two virtues lies in this: humans can achieve a transcendence of unity with all things, while simultaneously achieving a constructive transcendence that distinguishes them from all things. This transcendence is not one-dimensional. Rather, after comprehending the universality of tiande 天德 (the intrinsic virtuosity of the Heavenly), the self spatially harmonizes with heaven, earth, and the myriad things, returning to “xuanming” 玄冥 (Dark-Oblivion). Furthermore, by emulating the dynamic order of tiande and illuminating the inherent nature of all things, the self temporally aligns with the transformations of the four seasons. This enables one to “guan zhi zhi er shen yu xing 官知止而神欲行” (For when the faculties of officiating understanding come to rest, imponderable spirit-like impulses begin to stir), neither contradicting “ri yue zhi ming 日月之明” (the brightness of the sun and moon) nor disrupting “si shi zhi shi 四時之施” (everything presented by the four seasons) Thereby, the individual attains the greatest possible inner freedom. In this process of transcendence, as Brook Ziporyn observes, there is no static, substantialized “identity” in the traditional metaphysical sense. Instead, it manifests as a dynamic, transformative, and open-ended “coherence” (Ziporyn 2012, pp. 162–82). Crucially, luminous virtue and inconspicuous virtue are not contradictory. The ultimate realization of the former resides in the latter, while the latter inherently contains the methodological foundation of the former. Together, they constitute mutually reinforcing stages in the cultivation of an authentic, integrated human existence. This duality is exemplified in Zhuangzi’s celebrated “Age of Perfect virtue” (zhi de zhi shi 至德之世), often dismissed as poetic utopianism for its vision of humans coexisting with beasts. Yet Zhuangzi’s political philosophy carries acute realism, offering critical insights for today’s anthropocentrism and ecological governance (Liu and Hao 2018, pp. 21–39; Nelson 2007, pp. 294–316). It demands that we grasp human self-worth through the interplay of particularity and commonality, thereby clarifying and advancing humanity’s relationship with all things.

In summary, the phrase shiri bing chu 十日並出 (ten suns rose in the sky at once) can be interpreted as shiri dai chu 十日代出 (ten suns alternately appearing), which embodies an intrinsic temporal order. This temporal order refers to the dynamic cyclical rhythms and growth patterns inherent to all things, ultimately pointing toward a spatial order of harmonious integration in the ever-changing cosmos. Through this lens, we may further reflect on the concept of De 德 (virtue) in Zhuangzi’s statement “er kuang De zhi jin hu ri zhe hu 而況德之進乎日者乎” (And how much better are multiple virtuosities than multiple suns?). De 德 (virtue) is a transcendent force grounded in cosmic unity. Xuande 玄德 (inconspicious virtue) reveals the universal essence of all things, while mingde 明德 (luminous virtue) sustains their ceaseless growth by enabling individual uniqueness. These dual dimensions—dissolving boundaries yet fostering differentiation—harmonize within De, reflecting the spontaneous order of the Dao.

In Zhuangzi’s philosophy, fully realizing one’s individual uniqueness (mingde 明德) leads to the universal essence of all things (xuande 玄德), achieving “aligning Heaven with Heaven”(yi tian he tian 以天合天). This self-transcendence is not a leap to an external realm but aligning with cosmic rhythms through mingde 明德 and xuande 玄德. By engaging the inner “heaven” (that which draws our involuntary attention, our wonder) to cultivate the outer “heaven” (enhancing practical capabilities), humanity locates its place within an organic, holistic cosmos (Wong 2009, pp. 568–84).