The Philosophy of Wine Ethics in the “Jiugao 酒誥” Chapter of the Shangshu 尚書 and the Political Order of the Western Zhou Dynasty

Abstract

The “Jiugao 酒誥” chapter of the Shangshu 尚書 is a proclamation on wine ethics, ordered by the Duke of Zhou for Kangshu to disseminate among the people. It marks the earliest system of laws and regulations concerning wine usage in Chinese history. In this chapter, the Duke of Zhou analyzed drinking from the perspectives of ethical philosophy and political dynamics, closely associating it with ethical codes, moral values, and political order. He criticized King Zhou of Shang for “drunkenness leading to national ruin” and detailed three ethical codes to regulate drinking practices. The Duke of Zhou established the ethical foundation of the Western Zhou Dynasty, incorporating the theory of wine virtue, and constructed its comprehensive political order. This exerted a profoundly lasting impact on Confucius and later Confucian scholars concerning the mandate of heaven and political thought, forming the basis of China’s political and cultural ethos for millennia.

1. Introduction

When appointing Kangshu to govern the people of Yin, the Duke of Zhou reflected on the historical lesson of the Shang Dynasty’s downfall, attributed to excessive drinking, and issued the “Jiugao 酒誥.”1 This edict established explicit regulations for drinking rituals in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Although initially directed at the people of Yin, the “Jiugao” functioned as a decree applicable to the royal dynasty and the vassal states. According to the Duke of Zhou, the primary causes of the Shang Dynasty’s downfall were debauchery and corrupt governance; King Zhou of Shang and his officials, consumed by drinking and pleasure-seeking, contributed to the kingdom’s collapse. With a deep understanding of these causes, the Duke of Zhou established ethical codes to regulate drinking activities, emphasizing principles such as “drink spirits only on occasions of sacrifices (Yin Wei Si 飲惟祀),” “virtue should preside so that there might be no drunkenness (De Jiang Wu Zui 德將無醉),” and “value only the productions of the soil (Wei Tu Wu Ai 惟土物愛).” These three moral laws were complementary and aligned with the ethical values and political system of the Western Zhou Dynasty.

The Duke of Zhou is a seminal figure in early thought in China. His contributions to ethical and political philosophy significantly shaped the moral values and governance concepts of traditional Chinese culture. Consequently, there is considerable academic interest in examining the Duke of Zhou’s ethical philosophy regarding virtues and his political theories. Huang Xiuming 黄修明 summarized the Duke of Zhou’s thoughts on the morality of wine, suggesting that the Duke of Zhou linked the act of drinking with the state of national governance, thereby establishing the Confucian theory that “drinking leads to the downfall of a nation (YinjiuWangguo 飲酒亡國) (X. Huang 2009, p. 61).” Roel Sterckx believes that the “Jiugao” may be the first narrative that separates secular alcohol consumption from the sacrificial use of alcohol, condemning the former. Securing a balance between the entertainment of spirits with food and drink and the desire for convivial celebration by ritual participants is a theme that pervades discussions of sacrifice in Warring States and Han texts (Sterckx 2011, p. 98). Pines (2017) believes that the “Jiugao” reflects the Duke of Zhou’s governance philosophy of “no indulgence (Wuyi 無逸),” where excessive drinking signifies moral laxity and relaxation, representing negligence in governing the state, which is considered an unforgivable trait for a ruler.2 In academic discourse, while some scholars explore the Duke of Zhou’s prohibition of alcohol, others delve into the moral philosophy and positive implications of the “Jiugao.” Yu Zhiping 餘治平 elaborated extensively on the positive significance of the Duke of Zhou’s thoughts on the morality of drinking, proposing that the Duke of Zhou endowed the act of drinking with more ethical and instructional functions, as well as ritual and legal attributes, exerting a profound influence on Chinese moral standards and social governance (Yu 2018, p. 67). Guo Xiaodong 郭曉東 examined the activity of drinking from the perspective of rituals and music3 (Liyue Wenming 禮樂文明), believing that wine is an important element of the rituals and music of the Western Zhou period, and in different ceremonial activities, wine is imbued with various political and ethical meanings (Guo 2022, p. 23). The academic community is increasingly exploring the connection between the Duke of Zhou’s views on the ethics of drinking and the political ethics and order of the Western Zhou Dynasty, seeking to uncover the deeper philosophical implications of his ideas.

Despite extensive academic research on the Duke of Zhou’s thoughts about the morality of drinking and associated political ethics, a systematic framework has yet to be established. This paper aims to firstly elucidate the moral philosophy inherent in the act of drinking as presented in the Duke of Zhou’s “Jiugao,” analyzing the political and ethical spirit underpinning this practice. Secondly, it offers an in-depth examination of how the Duke of Zhou incorporated drinking activities into the rituals and music of the Western Zhou Dynasty, thereby contributing to the establishment of its political order.

2. The Three Ethical Codes for Drinking Activities in the “Jiugao”

According to the Duke of Zhou, King Zhou of Shang’s excessive indulgence in alcohol violated the heavenly mandate bestowed upon him to maintain world stability. King Zhou’s indulgence in pleasure contradicted moral principles and rituals, and his reckless governance jeopardized the people’s livelihoods. Thus, his excessive drinking was not merely improper behavior; it constituted political misconduct that violated the heavenly mandate, disregarded rituals, and neglected the people’s well-being. In light of the historical lesson that King Zhou’s alcohol indulgence and immoral behavior led to the collapse of his reign, the Duke of Zhou implemented clear ethical standards for drinking. He closely connected alcohol consumption ethics with political ethics, laying the foundation for the political principles of the Western Zhou Dynasty’s royal order. According to the records in the “Jiugao” chapter of the Shangshu, the following was stated:

King Wen admonished and instructed the young nobles, who were part of the office or had any employment, that they should not ordinarily use spirits; throughout all the states, he instructed that spirits should be consumed only on occasions of sacrifices, and that virtue should preside so that there is no drunkenness. He said, “Let my people teach their young men that they are to love only the productions of the soil, for so will their hearts be good. Let the young also hearken wisely to the constant instructions of their fathers; and let them look at all virtuous actions, whether great or small, in the same light (with watchful heed).” (文王誥教小子有正有事：無彝酒。越庶國：飲惟祀，德將無醉。惟曰我民迪小子惟土物愛，厥心臧。聰聽祖考之遺訓，越小大德，小子惟一。《尚書·周書·酒誥》)

The Duke of Zhou clearly put forward three moral commandments for drinking activities, namely “drink spirits only on occasion of sacrifices,” “virtue should preside so that there might be no drunkenness,” and “love only the productions of the soil”; he demanded that all the subjects of the dynasty strictly adhere to these commandments. Kong Yingda 孔穎達 believed that the three ethical codes of alcohol ethics issued by the Duke of Zhou were not only for Kang Shu or royal members but also for the emperor, feudal lords, ministers, officials, and people of various states, connecting the drinking activities of the Zhou Dynasty closely with ethical values and political order (Kong 1999, p. 375).

The first ethical code established by the Duke of Zhou was “drink spirits only on occasion of sacrifices.” Within the Zhou conceptual framework, sacrificial ceremonies were regarded as exceedingly solemn and sacred. The Duke of Zhou associated drinking with these ceremonies, stipulating that alcohol consumption was permissible solely during such occasions. The Zhou people regarded alcohol as a valuable commodity in their agrarian society, ideal for offering to the ancestors and celestial beings. Furthermore, they sought to employ alcohol as a medium to facilitate communication with the divine and their ancestors. Firstly, in the Zhou people’s sacrificial ceremonies, alcohol was the main offering. The Zhou people viewed alcohol as the prominent sacrificial offering in ceremonies dedicated to worshiping the heavens, the Earth, and their ancestors, praying for good harvests and welcoming the deities. The reason why alcohol is so important in sacrificial rituals is that during the Western Zhou period, food was very scarce and alcohol was the essence extracted from grain, making its production highly valuable.4 Therefore, the Duke of Zhou advocated drinking fine wine only when offering sacrifices to the heaven and their ancestors, thus showing respect and reverence for them. Furthermore, the drinking activities in the sacrificial ceremony also involve the use of alcohol to communicate with the heaven and their ancestors. The chief officiant provides sufficient alcohol to achieve a state of intoxication, facilitating a connection with the celestial realm. In this altered state, the officiant transcends their ordinary persona, uniting with the celestial forces to experience divine communication and embody the sacred presence necessary to perform the sacrificial ritual as ordained by the heavens. “Wine became the most devout expression of the Zhou people, acting as a medium for communication between humans and nature, as well as humans and ancestral spirits. In conclusion, in sacrificial activities, the power of wine is deliberately maximized.” (S. Wang 2010, p. 25). “After Zhuanxu severed the connection between the earthly and heavenly realms, he would get drunk and leap from the earth to the divine realm to communicate with deities. This was an important pathway connecting humans and gods. Being intoxicated, one could lose touch with the earthly realm, thoughts, and physical body, and leap from the earth into the realm of deities to communicate with departed ancestors and deities.” (Gong 2021, p. 55). The Duke of Zhou acknowledged that drinking activities can facilitate communication between humans and the heavens. However, he was acutely aware that excessive consumption results in irrational behavior. Consequently, he instituted restrictions limiting drinking solely to sacrificial ceremonies.

The second ethical code established by the Duke of Zhou is “virtue should preside so that there might be no drunkenness.” This ethical code requires drinkers to maintain moral discipline during drinking activities and adhere to the mandatory norms of ritual propriety. This means that drinking is not only a matter of the drinker’s personal moral realm but also a public and obligatory norm of ritual propriety. The Duke of Zhou integrated morality and ritual propriety into drinking activities, where people’s drinking behavior is constrained by ethical and ritual norms. Drinkers should restrain themselves with virtues and proper drinking etiquette to avoid drunkenness and impropriety. “Incorporating drinking behavior into the category of ‘ritual,’ utilizing drinking activities to carry the ethical function of ‘ritual,’ is a prominent feature in the historical development of ancient Chinese wine culture and represents the deepest spiritual essence of Chinese wine culture.” (Gao 2011, p. 120). The Duke of Zhou first associated the virtues and rituals of wine with the principles of ethical kinship, recognizing its positive role in expressing filial piety toward parents, fostering harmony among clan members, and transforming these virtues and rituals into ceremonies that celebrate kinship. The Duke of Zhou proposed in the “Jiugao” the viewpoint of maintaining ethical kinship relationships through wine rituals, explaining it as follows:

“(Ye people of) the land of Mei, if you can employ your limbs, largely cultivating your millets, and hastening about in the service of your fathers and elders; and if, with your carts and oxen, you traffic diligently to a distance, that you may thereby filially minister to your parents; then, when your parents are happy, you may set forth your spirits clear and strong, and use them.” (妹土，嗣爾股肱，純其藝黍稷，奔走事厥考厥長。肇牽車牛，遠服賈用，孝養厥父母。厥父母慶，自洗腆，致用酒。《尚書·周書·酒誥》)

The Duke of Zhou explicitly connected the act of drinking with the virtue of filial piety, positing that individuals can drink to express reverence towards parents and promote harmony among clan members, thereby instituting drinking rituals within the clan. He further associated the virtues and rituals of wine with the relationships between rulers and their officials, transforming these practices into ceremonial occasions for rulers and officials (Junchen Zhi Li 君臣之禮). The “Jiugao” also suggests that officials should adhere to the virtues and rituals of wine during banquets with rulers and fellow officials, explaining it as follows:

“Hearken constantly to my instructions, all ye my (high) officers and ye heads of departments, all ye, my noble chiefs; when ye have largely done your duty in ministering to your aged, and serving your ruler, ye may eat and drink freely and to satiety. And to speak of greater things: when you can maintain a constant, watchful examination of yourselves, and your conduct is in accordance with correct virtue, then may you present the offerings of sacrifice, and at the same time indulge yourselves in festivity. In such case you will indeed be ministers doing right service to your king, and Heaven likewise will approve your great virtue, so that you shall never be forgotten in the royal House.” (庶士、有正越庶伯、君子，其爾典聽朕教！爾大克羞耇惟君，爾乃飲食醉飽。丕惟曰爾克永觀省，作稽中德，爾尚克羞饋祀。爾乃自介用逸，茲乃允惟王正事之臣。茲亦惟天若元德，永不忘在王家。《尚書·周書·酒誥》)

The Duke of Zhou mandated that the virtuous officials of the dynasty honor their elders and the monarch by diligently fulfilling their respective roles, adhering to established etiquette and laws, and assisting the ruler in executing political affairs sanctioned by heaven. In doing so, these virtuous officials could fully embody filial piety and virtue, thereby qualifying to participate in sacrificial rituals with the emperor and deserving the enjoyment of wine and delicacies. Overall, the ethical code of “virtue should preside so that there might be no drunkenness” links together the individual “personal virtues (Side 私德),” the collective “clan virtues (Zude 族德),” and the universal “political virtues (Zhengde 政德)” in the society. In the drinking activities conducted among families, the ruler, and subjects, and the three elements of personal virtue, clan virtue, and political virtue5 interact and overlap, transforming the drinking activities into ceremonial norms for individual moral cultivation, harmonious relationships within the group, and effective governance of the state.

The third ethical code established by the Duke of Zhou is “love only the productions of the soil.” King Zhou of the Shang Dynasty fell from power due to his arrogance, extravagance, indulgence, and wasteful consumption, resulting in the loss of popular support and ultimately the downfall of his kingdom. In the Duke of Zhou’s perspective, prioritizing agriculture, valuing food, and nurturing the people were essential prerequisites for engaging in drinking activities. During the Zhou Dynasty, wine was a rare and valuable commodity, largely inaccessible to ordinary villagers and town residents. Even nobles and aristocrats were expected to cherish it greatly when partaking. ”In ancient times, those who could make wine were rare. The Analects mentions ‘selling wine and dried meat,’ indicating the presence of wine shops in Confucius’s time, but they may not have existed during the time of King Wen.” (Zhang 2013, p. 132) The Duke of Zhou associated the consumption of alcohol with agricultural production, believing that wine represents the essence refined from grains. He argued that if the ruling class failed to moderate their drinking, it would inevitably result in the waste of substantial grain quantities. King Zhou of the Shang Dynasty indulged excessively with his courtiers, squandering essential resources that should have been allocated to fulfilling the survival needs of the populace rather than supporting the extravagant feasting of the elite. As food sustains the population, grains are crucial for survival; thus, valuing food equates to valuing the lives of the people. The Duke of Zhou advocated in the “Wuyi”6 無逸 that rulers should possess the political virtue of focusing on agriculture and cherishing food, explaining it as follows:

The Duke of Zhou said, “Oh! the superior man rests in this, that he will indulge in no luxurious ease. He first understands how the painful toil of sowing and reaping conducts to ease, and thus he understands how the lower people depend on this toil (for their support). I have observed among the lower people, that where the parents have diligently labored in sowing and reaping, their sons (often) do not understand this painful toil, but abandon themselves to ease, and to village Slang, and become quite disorderly. Or where they do not do so, they (still) throw contempt on their parents, saying, “Those old people have heard nothing and know nothing.”” (周公曰：嗚呼！君子所，其無逸。先知稼穡之艱難，乃逸，則知小人之依。相小人，厥父母勤勞稼穡，厥子乃不知稼穡之艱難，乃逸乃諺。既誕，否則侮厥父母曰：昔之人無聞知。《尚書·周書·無逸》)

The Duke of Zhou instructed government officials to first comprehend the hardships of agricultural cultivation, reject indulgence and extravagance, and diligently perform their official duties to effectively govern the populace.

3. Wine Ethics in the “Jiugao” and the Duke of Zhou’s Political and Ethical Thoughts of “Respecting the Mandate of Heaven” (Zunchong–Tianming 尊崇天命)

The Duke of Zhou delineated the ethical codes for drinking activities in the “Jiugao,” closely associating these principles with his concept of the “Mandate of Heaven.” The “Mandate of Heaven” is a metaphysical principle, while the virtues and rituals of drinking represent tangible tools. The virtues and rituals of drinking are the concrete expressions of the “Mandate of Heaven,” while the “Mandate of Heaven” represents the ultimate philosophical essence of the virtues and rituals of drinking. Therefore, the Duke of Zhou’s ethical codes for drinking activities are complementary and harmoniously unified with his thought in the “mandate from heaven,” and further exploration of the Duke of Zhou’s political and ethical thoughts of “Respecting the Mandate of Heaven” is necessary in studying the Duke of Zhou’s philosophy of drinking virtues.

Firstly, the Duke of Zhou stipulated that drinking was permissible solely during sacrificial activities, reflecting the sacred significance of the “Mandate of Heaven” in the Duke of Zhou’s political philosophy. The Duke of Zhou regarded the “Mandate of Heaven” as the foundation of the legitimacy of rulers’ political power, with its fundamental meaning being “a ruler’s position is granted by the Mandate of Heaven.” In the Duke of Zhou’s view, the Mandate of Heaven is the legitimate source of royal authority, and all ethical norms, rites, music, punishments, and governance originate from the Mandate of Heaven. The Zhou people overthrowing the Shang Dynasty was perceived as fulfilling heaven’s will; thus, “Respecting the Mandate of Heaven” is the fundamental principle of the Zhou governance. “The Zhou rituals evolved from ceremonial worship of deities into a comprehensive set of norms governing social organization and life order.” (Li 2015, p. 95). “The supremacy of the Mandate of Heaven has always been a concern of the ruling class, with their primary focus being on the longevity of political power and the fate of the nation. Thus, “Mandate of Heaven” has become their theoretical tool for interpreting historical progress and governing the present.” (Liang 2007, p. 120) This illustrates that the entire set of norms governing the organization and social order of Western Zhou society originated from the “Mandate of Heaven.” Consequently, the people of the Zhou Dynasty demonstrated reverence for this mandate by offering sacrifices to deities and appeasing celestial beings as a means to repay the blessings of the land and crops bestowed upon them by heaven. Moreover, in light of the historical fall of the Shang Dynasty, the Duke of Zhou recognized that the Mandate of Heaven could be transferred and concluded that only through reverence for heaven could one evade the fate of its transfer. In the “Jiugao,” the Duke of Zhou acknowledged the legitimacy of the kingship of the ancestors of the Shang Dynasty while also explaining the righteousness of the mandate from heaven bestowed upon the Western Zhou Dynasty, explaining it as follows:

“Formerly the first wise king of Yin manifested a reverential awe of the bright principles of Heaven and of the lower people, acting accordingly, steadfast in his virtue, and holding fast his wisdom. From him Tang the Successful, down to Di-Yi, all completed their royal virtue and revered their chief ministers, so that their managers of affairs respectfully discharged their helping duties, and dared not to allow themselves in idleness and pleasure; how much less would they dare to indulge themselves in drinking! Moreover, in the exterior domains, (the princes of) the Hou, Dian, Nan, and Wei (states), with their presiding chiefs and in the interior domain, all the various officers, the directors of the several departments, the inferior officers and employés, the heads of great houses, and the men of distinguished name living in retirement, all eschewed indulgence in spirits. Not only did they not dare to indulge in them, but they had not leisure to do so, being occupied with helping to complete the sovereigns virtue and make it more illustrious, and helping the directors of affairs reverently to attend to his service.” (在昔殷先哲王迪畏天顯小民，經德秉哲。自成湯咸至于帝乙，成王畏相惟御事，厥棐有恭，不敢自暇自逸，矧曰其敢崇飲？越在外服，侯甸男衛邦伯，越在內服，百僚庶尹惟亞惟服宗工越百姓里居，罔敢湎于酒。不惟不敢，亦不暇，惟助成王德顯越，尹人祗辟。《尚書·周書·酒誥》)

The ancestors of the Shang Dynasty revered and offered sacrifices to the heavens, guiding the people to follow the mandate of heaven and moral values. Officials were able to fulfill their duties diligently without neglecting state affairs due to drinking, and the people lived well under the governance of the kings of the Shang Dynasty. Therefore, in the eyes of the Duke of Zhou, the kingship of the ancestors of the Shang Dynasty was recognized by the heavens. The King Zhou of the Shang Dynasty’s debauchery due to alcohol led to his abandonment by the heavens, and losing the mandate of heaven meant losing the qualification to rule the world; therefore, the legitimacy of his kingship was lost. The process of replacing the Shang Dynasty with the Zhou Dynasty was not without challenges. Faced with the difficulties of Wu Geng 武庚’s rebellion and suspicion from his brothers, the Duke of Zhou also respected the mandate of heaven, praying to the heavens and performing divination to stabilize the early political situation of the Western Zhou Dynasty.

Secondly, the Duke of Zhou emphasized moral and ritual norms in drinking activities, reflecting his tendency to moralize and ethicize the concept of the “Mandate of Heaven” and to link political rise and fall with moral ethics.7 L. Chen (2009) believes that in the Western Zhou period, there was a moral code behind the existing political order and the operation of politics needed to adhere to certain moral requirements; otherwise, it would inevitably lead to failure. (L. Chen 2009, p. 324) Yun (2015) believes that although the Zhou people inherited the ideas of the Yin people, by this time, the heavens had transformed from an ancestor god with no trace into a judicator of good and evil deeds, no longer relying on blood ties but on the monarch’s governance and conduct to bestow the mandate of heaven. This indicates that the Zhou people’s concept of “heaven” had started to acquire moral and ethical significance (Yun 2015, p. 31). According to the Duke of Zhou, the Zhou people’s ancestors adhered to moral principles and consequently received heaven’s approval, which led to heaven appointing the Zhou people to govern the world and manage the fiefdoms. In the canonical texts of the Western Zhou Dynasty, there are many records about the virtuous deeds of the ancient kings, as follows:

“The ordinances of Heaven, -How deep are they and unintermitting! And oh! how illustrious, Was the singleness of the virtue of king Wen!” (維天之命、於穆不已。於乎不顯、文王之德之純。《詩經·周頌·維天之命》)

“It was your greatly distinguished father, the king Wen, who was able to illustrate his virtue and be careful in the use of punishments. He did not dare to treat with contempt (even) wifeless men and widows. He employed the employable, and revered the reverend; he was terrible to those who needed to be awed—so getting distinction among the people. It was thus he laid the foundations of (the sway of) our small portion of the kingdom, and the one or two (neighboring) regions were brought under, his improving influence, until throughout our western land all placed in him their reliance. The fame, of him ascended up to the high God, and God approved. Heaven accordingly gave a grand charge to king Wen, to exterminate the great (dynasty of) Yin, and grandly receive its appointment, so that the various countries belonging to it and their peoples were brought to an orderly condition. “(惟乃丕顯考文王，克明德慎罰；不敢侮鰥寡，庸庸，祗祗，威威，顯民，用肇造我區夏，越我一、二邦以修我西土。惟時怙冒，聞于上帝，帝休，天乃大命文王。殪戎殷，誕受厥命越厥邦民。《尚書·周書·康誥》)

The Duke of Zhou enhanced the moral significance of the “Mandate of Heaven” by emphasizing that rulers should emulate the virtuous deeds of ancient kings and practice benevolent governance through their methods and means. Consequently, the Western Zhou interpretation of the Mandate of Heaven introduced an objective element to the previously held belief in divine authority, thereby providing normative standards and benchmarks for governance practices. The integration of governance practices into the concept of the Mandate of Heaven became central to the ideology of the ruling class. Hou 侯外廬 (2011) believes that the Zhou people’s reverence for the heavens in their religious beliefs extended to their reverence for virtue in their ethical beliefs (Hou 2011, p. 94). According to the Duke of Zhou, even the act of drinking alcohol should conform to ethical norms of respect. Adhering to etiquette in drinking activities not only mitigates the risk of drinkers losing their virtues due to overindulgence but also elevates drinking to a ritual linked with the Mandate of Heaven and morality. By participating in ritual drinking ceremonies enriched with etiquette and music, individuals can embody the ethical principles of family harmony and kinship, thereby promoting familial harmony and aiding the nation in achieving benevolent governance. “The significance of local drinking rituals lies in demonstrating respect, observing the hierarchy of seniority, and treating people based on their virtues rather than their social status, thus fostering ethical norms of filial piety, respect for the wise, reverence for elders, and care for the elderly. As for banquet etiquette, it seeks to bring joy between ruler and ministers at court and promote harmony among kin in the clan. Therefore, while it is acceptable to enjoy drinking, one should not get drunk without restraint, showing familial closeness, but also not indulging excessively in alcohol. Even when intoxicated, one should still uphold proper etiquette.” (Guo 2022, p. 28). It is evident that the Duke of Zhou used rituals and etiquette to regulate drinking behavior. The moral qualities of virtue and filial piety, along with the etiquette system, not only govern drinking activities but also ensure they are conducted within the bounds of propriety and regulation. Consequently, drinking activities became celebratory gatherings that foster familial harmony and collective joy, ultimately elevating them to a state of “joy” (Le 樂). The Duke of Zhou imbued the Mandate of Heaven with moral significance, which led the Western Zhou Dynasty to emphasize moral values in their rituals and music. Etiquette functioned as external behavioral norms, whereas music harmonized internal moral character. By integrating the spirit of etiquette and music into drinking activities, the Duke of Zhou used drinking rituals to regulate public behavior and employed music to harmonize individual temperaments. This approach allowed people to be unconsciously educated during their daily social activities, guiding the nation towards governance through non-action (Wuwei Er Zhi 無爲而治).

Thirdly, the Duke of Zhou clearly stipulated in “Jiugao” that drinking activities should be based on cherishing food and caring for the people, reflecting the Duke of Zhou’s “people-oriented (Minben 民本)”8 political views. The Duke of Zhou regarded “people’s will (Minyi 民意)” and “heaven’s will (Tianyi 天意)” equally, thus making being “people-oriented” important for maintaining the stability of royal authority. “The Zhou people believed that one of the main reasons for the downfall of the Shang dynasty was the cultural trap of the Yin people’s belief in the Mandate of Heaven. This is because the Yin people’s belief in the Mandate of Heaven was absolutist, with the belief that the Mandate would never shift due to external circumstances and would always belong to the Shang rulers. As a result, in certain situations, it could lead to extremes where the rulers no longer valued public opinion and became enemies of the people.” (G. Lin 2017, p. 86). Considering that grains used in brewing were vital for the sustenance of the population, prioritizing their use for essential needs was a necessary measure to put the people first. From the perspective of the Duke of Zhou, King Zhou of Shang’s excessive indulgence in alcohol not only demonstrated a lack of virtue but also contradicted a people-centric political approach by squandering agricultural resources, ultimately leading to a loss of public support and political power. In the “Jiugao” by the Duke of Zhou, it is also explained that going against the will of the people means going against the Mandate of Heaven, as follows:

“This gave him no concern, and he wrought not that any sacrifices of fragrant virtue might ascend to Heaven. The rank odour of the people’s resentments, and the drunkenness of his herd of creatures, went loudly up on high, so that Heaven sent down ruin on Yin, and showed no love for it—because of such excesses. There is not any cruel oppression of Heaven; people themselves accelerate their guilt, (and its punishment).” (弗惟德馨香祀，登聞于天；誕惟民怨，庶群自酒，腥聞在上。故天降喪于殷，罔愛于殷，惟逸。天非虐，惟民自速辜。《尚書·周書·酒誥》)

In the ideological concepts of the Zhou people, the people are included in the perspective of heaven, and there is a parallel between the will of heaven and the will of the people. When King Zhou of Shang went against the will of the people, he was essentially going against the Mandate of Heaven. The rule of the Shang Dynasty deviated from the ways of heaven and the hearts of the people, evolving into a regime marked by corruption and moral decay. According to the concept of the divine mandate, all people under heaven are subjects of this mandate bestowed by the heavens. The Mandate of Heaven and the will of the people are intertwined. The key to ensuring benevolent governance is adherence to the people’s will, as the heavens evaluate a ruler’s success or failure through this lens. A king must prioritize his people and guarantee they are not oppressed in social and political life to align his governance with the heavenly mandate. The Duke of Zhou introduced the notion of the people as foundational (Yi Min Wei Ben 以民为本), redefining kingship from the people’s perspective and reinforcing the idea that the people’s will mirrors the will of heaven. The Mandate of Heaven is revealed through the people’s will; without them, it remains obscured. The people’s sentiments and hearts manifest the Mandate of Heaven. The Duke of Zhou elevated his reverence for the populace by prioritizing their affairs. This shift marked a significant transformation in Zhou’s cultural approach, with profound implications for Chinese intellectual history.

In general, the Duke of Zhou transcended the Shang Dynasty’s view of “the Mandate of Heaven” tied to the worship of deities, establishing a mandate of heaven centered on “virtue,” which served as a significant model and warning to the rulers of the Western Zhou. As the root of culture, the Duke of Zhou’s concept of the Mandate of Heaven profoundly influenced Confucius and Confucianism philosophy. Confucius was not the creator of the concept of the Mandate of Heaven; his understanding of it originated from the beliefs of the Duke of Zhou during the early Western Zhou period. If we compare the texts of “The Analects” and “The Book of Documents,” we find that their attitudes towards the mandate of heaven are quite similar. After the Duke of Zhou, Confucius further developed the idea from the perspective of respecting the Mandate of Heaven, proposing that benevolence is an embodiment of heaven’s will, thereby integrating the qualities of benevolence and the Mandate of Heaven into a unified whole. The concept of heaven as the sovereign, inherited by Confucius from the Duke of Zhou, became the transcendent source of Confucian thought. Henceforth, no matter how Confucian thought developed, it had to trace the source of its values back to heaven. For example, Mencius’ 孟子 idea of “understanding Nature and understanding Heaven,” (Zhixingzhitian 知性知天) Dong Zhongshu’s 董仲舒 concept of the interaction between heaven and humanity (Tianrenganying 天人感应), and Cheng-Zhu’s 程朱 theory of heavenly principles (Tianli 天理) are all based on this notion. It can be said that the Duke of Zhou’s Mandate of Heaven, centered on “revering virtue and caring for the people (Jingdebaomin 敬德保民),” was inherited and upheld by Confucius and later Confucian scholars, establishing the fundamental cultural roots of the Chinese nation for thousands of years.

4. Wine Ethics in the “Jiugao” and the Political Order System of the Western Zhou Dynasty

In the “Jiugao,” the Duke of Zhou not only standardized the practice of wine drinking but also infused it with his moral philosophy and political convictions. During the Western Zhou period, these drinking activities were intricately connected to the establishment of the political order. Following the drinking activities, the Duke of Zhou established the Wangdao political order system that permeates through “the Mandate of Heaven–sage kings–virtuous ministers–the people (Tianming Shengwang Xianchen Minzhong 天命-聖王-賢臣-民衆).”

Firstly, the Duke of Zhou communicated the “Mandate of Heaven” and the “sage king” through sacrificial wine. In the sacrificial rites, the sage king serves both as the political leader and the chief of the shaman, possessing the authority to connect the heaven and humanity and to establish the order in the human world.9 The sage king not only holds the political power to govern the order of the human world but also possesses the religious authority that connects the heaven and humanity. “The sage king also serves as a shaman; he is both a king and a shaman.” (Jia 2010, p. 63). During the ritualistic drinking experience, the chief sacrificer releases the biases and attachments of daily life. Upon transcending the earthly realm, the mind and spirit ascend from the mundane to the divine, engaging in dialog with ancestors and celestial beings. The Duke of Zhou often presided over large-scale sacrifices and divination ceremonies, acting as a shaman and personally facilitating the “communication between humans and deities.” Liu (2013) believes that the sage king is the embodiment of the way and also the embodiment of the heavenly ruler nature. The way and the sage king work together in coordination to accomplish the creation of all things and human society (Liu 2013, p. 31). The sage king is the intermediary that connects heaven and human society, establishing the order of the human world based on harmony with the divine. The connotation of the sage king is “inner sagehood and outer kingliness (Neisheng Waiwang 內聖外王),” which means that a good ruler must first “harmonize with the heaven,” cultivating virtuous conduct to serve as a role model for the people. Secondly, a good ruler must “establish laws based on the principles of Heaven (Fatianjianzhi 法天建制),” possessing the political wisdom of impartiality and selflessness. Heaven creates all things without the differentiation of good or bad and without bias or partiality. Therefore, the heavenly way in impartiality and selflessness is truly realized. The sage king, by establishing laws grounded in heavenly principles, embodies the spirit of the celestial way. Consequently, the way of kingship should be characterized by impartiality, selflessness, and governance through non-interference. In the context of the Duke of Zhou’s thoughts on wine ethics during sacrificial rituals, an implicit ideology of “inner sagehood and outer kingliness” underlies his construction of political order.

Secondly, the Duke of Zhou transformed drinking activities into wine ethics and rituals, thus establishing rites between rulers and ministers, as well as among kin. This transformation enabled the Zhou kings to secure political support from relatives and feudal lords, thereby forming a royal system of “household governance (Jia Tianxia 家天下).”10 Chen Yun 陳贇 believes that the Duke of Zhou’s governance aimed to construct a “household governance” political and educational structure through the means of rites and music (Liyue禮樂) (p. 373). In the “Jiugao,” the Duke of Zhou established the customs of local drinking rituals and banquet rituals to promote good governance by integrating drinking customs into rites and music. This integration would allow subjects to feel the bonds of ethical kinship and the duties between rulers and ministers, thereby reinforcing the patriarchal system. Local drinking rituals do not encourage indulgence and revelry among family members; instead, they exemplify orderly conduct and adherence to etiquette among different generations, and they also promote harmonious and affectionate family relationships. Drinking activities conducted according to rites clearly serve an educational function. Through the ritualistic form of drinking, values such as filial piety, fraternal respect, and friendship are demonstrated, subtly instilling ethical kinship principles in the people. In the banquet rituals of the Western Zhou Dynasty, wine’s political significance was more fully elaborated. Rulers, ministers, hosts, and guests jointly appreciated fine wine and music, with these elements blending harmoniously. This not only upheld the distinction between rulers and ministers but also emphasized their friendship in jointly governing the country. The essential significance of the Duke of Zhou’s system of enfeoffment, establishing sons and firstborns, lies in creating political unity, while the essence of establishing the patriarchal system is to establish the ethics of society. Therefore, the ultimate foundation of political unity lies in social ethics rather than in political organization. And the foundation of social ethics lies in the family, namely in the natural filial piety and fraternal respect within individuals’ hearts in family clans.” (Y. Chen 2019, p. 37). The Mandate of Heaven was bestowed upon the Zhou king, who consequently bore a moral responsibility to heaven. During the Western Zhou Dynasty, the patriarchal system was characterized by a diminishing pattern, as the mandate granted to the Zhou king was passed down to vassal lords of the same surname. The exogamous marital customs of the Zhou people linked them with other ethnic groups, thereby establishing the foundation for the Zhou system of enfeoffment through patriarchal and marital relationships. Even though the sage king aligns with the principles of heaven, the successful implementation of kingship requires the support of relatives, vassals, rites, and music. These political teachings are essential to applying the way of kingship. A civilization founded on rites and music is necessary to establish a political realm where blessings can be extended to all people under heaven. The Duke of Zhou notably integrated wine ethics and rituals into rites and music, forming a comprehensive system of governance that intricately combined politics, religion, and kinship.

Thirdly, the Duke of Zhou’s ethical standards regarding wine underscore the importance of valuing food and caring for the populace. This reflects his conviction that rulers have a duty to nurture their citizens and adhere to the governance principle of educating the populace subsequent to ensuring their sustenance (Yang Er Hou Jiao 养而后教). S. Lin (2023) believes that the Zhou people’s concept of “putting the people first” is mainly manifested through nurturing and educating the people. (S. Lin 2023, p. 23). The Mandate of Heaven and the Tao 道 are the fundamental sources for nurturing all things and all people. The sage king is the personification of the Tao and has a nurturing function for all things and all people. The sage king’s nurturing of the people is a form of power, but it is also both a responsibility and an obligation. Regarding the order of nurturing versus educating the people, the Duke of Zhou believes that nurturing the people should take precedence over educating them. “In the relationship between enriching the people and educating them, Confucianism has always advocated prioritizing enriching the people before educating them, which has been a political tradition since the time of Duke of Zhou.” (Peng 2017, p. 383). Nurturing the people is the primary concern in governance, as nurturing the people ensures the self-sufficiency of the sensory lives of the people. Educating the people cultivates goodness in them, enabling the people to achieve the complete meaning of moral life. Educating the people is an important duty of the sage king and wise ministers, but it must be based on nurturing the people. The Duke of Zhou believed that true education in virtue is not simply imparting moral knowledge directly to the people; rather, it should imbue moral significance into customs such as drinking and gatherings, forming ethical kinship rites and political ceremonies. This allows the people to be influenced naturally through observing these rites. In the view of the Duke of Zhou, the self-sufficiency of sensory life enables people to discern honor and disgrace, which in turn allows them to practice virtues in their life activities, cultivating a virtuous life. The cultivation of a virtuous life helps individuals overcome excessive personal desires, allowing the populace to settle into a self-sufficient material existence. The political principle of kingship should function to nurture and educate the people, as the preservation of sensory life at the physical level serves as the foundation for all life activities. A prosperous economic and social life for the public encourages them to aspire toward virtue and wisdom; the cultivation of a virtuous character helps individuals break free from the entanglements of personal desires, aiding the populace in finding contentment in their sensory life. The Duke of Zhou elevated the satisfaction of the people’s sensory life to the position of the foremost concern in governance, breaking free from asceticism’s constraints on the populace’s reasonable pursuit of material well-being. He affirmed that the existence of the people’s life takes precedence over the cultivation of virtue in a transcendent moral sense, which holds profound progressive significance. It is evident that the Duke of Zhou’s idea of cherishing food actually epitomizes the political governance principle of educating the people after nurturing them in the Western Zhou Dynasty.

In general, the Duke of Zhou’s philosophy on wine ethics is intricately connected to the construction of his political order. By conducting rituals involving wine, he established the moral conduct and governance of rulers. Through these wine-drinking ceremonies, he upheld the Zhou Dynasty’s ritual and music system, along with its feudal hierarchy, thereby maintaining the dynasty’s stability. By implementing measures to cherish food, he established the principle of educating the people after nurturing them during the Western Zhou Dynasty. Under such a holistic political order, the Western Zhou Dynasty was able to establish effective governance. After the Duke of Zhou, Confucius and later Confucian scholars exhibited the utmost reverence for the Zhou rites (Zhouli 周礼). Confucius was raised in the State of Lu, where the Zhou rites were most developed, and throughout his life, he upheld the Zhou rites within an environment that esteemed them. Confucius advocated for valuing both sacrifices and human affairs, promoting benevolence as the core of the ritual system and advocating for governance by virtue, all of which reflected the political governance spirit of the Duke of Zhou. Moreover, later Confucian scholars’ thoughts on the way of heaven, filial piety, and people-oriented governance can also trace their origins back to the political order thoughts of the Duke of Zhou; later Confucian scholars regarded “inner sagehood and outer kingliness” as a personal pursuit, “gaining the ruler’s support to practice the Way” (Dejun Xingdao 得君行道) as a political ideal, and “educating and nurturing the people” (Jiaoyang Tianxia 教养天下) as the ultimate political goal; all these reflect the political governance spirit of the Duke of Zhou. The Duke of Zhou’s construction of political order established a profound theoretical foundation for the governance of the Chinese nation over thousands of years.

5. Conclusions

Reflecting on the historical lesson of the Shang Dynasty’s downfall due to King Zhou and his officials’ excessive indulgence in wine and debauchery, the Duke of Zhou, in the “Jiugao,” re-evaluated and repositioned drinking activities from the perspective of moral philosophy and political construction. He established three wine ethics codes—“drink spirits only on occasion of sacrifices,” “virtue should preside so that there might be no drunkenness,” and “love only the productions of the soil.” These wine ethics codes laid the foundation for the basic moral principles regarding drinking that have been upheld by China for thousands of years.

The Duke of Zhou not only theoretically regulated drinking but also incorporated it into the governance framework of the Western Zhou political system. The Duke of Zhou strictly enforced wine rituals, closely linking drinking activities with sacrificial rituals through the wine ethics standard of “drink spirits only on occasion of sacrifices.” This connection revealed the divine function of wine in bridging heaven and humanity, further promoting the political and spiritual ideology of revering the mandate of heaven in the Western Zhou Dynasty. Through the wine ethics standard of “virtue should preside so that there might be no drunkenness,” the Duke of Zhou clearly regulated drinking behavior associated with rituals, simultaneously harnessing the positive role of drinking in educating the people and harmonizing their temperament. This exemplifies the governing spirit of the Western Zhou Dynasty, which emphasized the political and moral principles of rites and music. Through the wine ethics standard of “love only the productions of the soil,” the Duke of Zhou not only established the virtue of “frugality and cherishing resources” in a monarch but also prioritized nurturing the people as the primary task of governance. This reflects the spirit of incorruptibility in the Western Zhou political governance, known as “respecting virtue and protecting the people.”

The Duke of Zhou demonstrated his philosophical wisdom through meticulous observation and the regulation of drinking. His wisdom is evident not only in the regulations he proposed but also in his non-interfering and straightforward approach to governance. By linking drinking with ethics, morals, and political activities, he established the political order of the Western Zhou Dynasty, based on hierarchical kinship and respect for elders and superiors. The Duke of Zhou’s thoughts on moderation in drinking and his political ideals significantly influenced Confucius and later Confucian scholars, laying the political and cultural foundations for the development and transmission of Confucian thought in China. To this day, his ideas on wine ethics and the political spirit of the Zhou system continue to profoundly influence China’s ethical and political concepts.