Media and Islamophobia in Europe: A Literature-Based Analysis of Reports 2015–2023

Round 1

Reviewer 1 Report

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

The study addresses an important and timely issue by examining the role of media in shaping Islamophobia in Western Europe, providing valuable insights into how anti-Muslim narratives are constructed and disseminated. There are, however, some elements that could be improved. With improved clarity, methodological refinement, and deeper engagement with media theories, this research has the potential to make a contribution to the field of Islamophobia and media studies.

The language of the article needs improvement, beginning with the abstract. For example, the sentence "Abstract: The representation of Muslims in Western European society is increasing significantly due to migration, fertility, and religious switching" could be expressed more clearly, as it is later in the text.

The phrase "globalization through media and propaganda" is unclear. Does the author mean that media globalization itself has led to the spread of Islamophobia, or that specific media narratives and propaganda campaigns have played a role? Clarifying this would improve precision.

"Globalization through media and propaganda contributed to the spread of Islamophobia, which started concerning Western society after the 9/11 Attacks in 2001 and the 7/7 London Bombing in 2005."- The sentence implies that Islamophobia began after the 9/11 attacks and the 7/7 London bombings. While media and propaganda have certainly contributed to Islamophobia, the sentence suggests a direct causality without considering other significant factors, such as political rhetoric, policies like the War on Terror, and socio-economic anxieties. A more nuanced argument would acknowledge multiple influences. The phrase "started concerning Western society" is awkward and imprecise. Does it mean that Islamophobia became a prominent issue in public discourse, that it led to policy changes, or that Western societies became more aware of it? A clearer choice of words would enhance readability.

"Western European society, represented in five major countries, Spain, the Netherlands, France, Germany, and the United Kingdom, is confused and overlapped."- The sentence implies that "Western European society" is a singular entity. It is unclear what "represented" means in this context. Are these five countries meant to be representative of all of Western Europe? If so, the author should justify why these specific nations were chosen and whether other Western European countries (e.g., Italy, Belgium, or Portugal) are excluded for a reason. The phrase "confused and overlapped" is vague and grammatically awkward. What does it mean for a society to be "confused"? Is this referring to cultural identity, political divisions, or public opinion? Similarly, "overlapped" is unclear—does it mean overlapping social issues, cultural influences, or historical connections? The sentence lacks specificity, making it difficult to understand the intended argument.

"The study discovered the deterministic complex relations between Anti-Immigrant sentiment and the rise of Islamophobia through media in Western Europe over the last decades."- The verb "discovered" is not the best choice in this context. Studies typically "analyze," "examine," or "identify" relationships rather than "discover" them, as discovery implies something previously unknown in an absolute sense. The phrase "deterministic complex relations" is ambiguous and somewhat contradictory. If the relationship between anti-immigrant sentiment and Islamophobia is deterministic, it implies a fixed and inevitable causal link, which is a strong claim requiring substantial evidence. However, complex social phenomena like Islamophobia and immigration attitudes are rarely purely deterministic; they are typically influenced by multiple factors. A clearer term like "interconnected dynamics" or "correlations" would be more appropriate. The phrase "through media" lacks specificity. Does the study examine news media, social media, political propaganda, entertainment media, or all of the above? Specifying the type of media and its role in shaping public perception would strengthen the argument.

"This study employs interpretative qualitative methods through phenomenology and literature studies, which aim to examine the fabrication of anti-Islam propaganda critically and decipher the underlying meaning of migrants' experiences that constitute Islamophobia in two contexts: Muslims as immigrants and their vicarious presence. The attempts and the ineffective Western European countries’ efforts merge a paradox of an ideal Europe regarding diversity campaigns, with the reality in Europe being influenced by political contestation and global constellation."- The phrase "examine the fabrication of anti-Islam propaganda critically" is ambiguous. Does the study investigate how anti-Islam propaganda is created (i.e., the process of fabrication)? Or does it analyze the claims within anti-Islam propaganda with a critical lens? Clarifying whether "fabrication" refers to the construction or the falsehood of propaganda would improve precision. The phrase "Muslims as immigrants and their vicarious presence" is unclear. What does "vicarious presence" mean in this context? Does it refer to the perception of Muslims in public discourse, media representation, or political rhetoric? More specificity would improve comprehension.

"The spread of Islam in Western Europe in the 21st Century is also closely linked to the influence of mass media and social media, which enable individuals to access information and news effortlessly."- The phrase "the spread of Islam" is overly broad and lacks nuance. It could imply various aspects- demographic growth, religious conversion, or cultural influence. The sentence suggests that the influence of mass media and social media is a primary factor in the spread of Islam, but this is an oversimplification.

The study explicitly labels Tariq Modood as “a Muslim researcher”, implying that his religious identity is relevant to his academic work. However, unless his research explicitly stems from a religious perspective, this characterization could be misleading. It assumes that his Muslim identity is central to his scholarship, rather than his academic expertise, which is problematic.

The phrase "proliferation of mass media propaganda" assumes that all mass media coverage of Islam is propagandistic and negative. While certain media outlets do engage in biased or sensationalist reporting, not all mass media content about Islam is propaganda.

"The emergence of Islamophobia accurately conceptualizes categories of racism that were not doing or similar to anti-Semitism in mobilizing counter to such a form of injustice as it continuously circulates in the public discourse (Sayyid, 2015)."- The phrase "were not doing or similar to anti-Semitism" is ungrammatical. "Mobilizing counter to such a form of injustice" is vague and awkward. Does it mean people have mobilized against Islamophobia, or that Islamophobia mobilizes opposition to itself?

"Several mass media outlets play a leading role in raising the insecurity and authenticity of individual subjective awareness regarding manipulation and simulation of one’s world of life"- The phrase "raising the insecurity and authenticity" is contradictory. How can media increase both insecurity and authenticity? These concepts need to be clearly distinguished or reworded.  "Individual subjective awareness regarding manipulation and simulation of one’s world of life" is incomprehensible. What does "simulation of one's world of life" mean? Is the media manipulating perceptions of reality? Does this refer to fake news, propaganda, or Islamophobic representations?

Overuse of abstract jargon. Terms like "ethnospace," "principal subject positions," and "hybrid formations" lack clarity and should be explained or replaced with clearer language.

Unclear connection between methodology and findings: The phenomenological approach is not well-integrated into the analysis. How are lived experiences of Muslims actually examined in the study? There is little mention of qualitative interviews, surveys, or personal testimonies.

Lack of methodological transparency: The article does not explain how data from the European Islamophobia Reports was analyzed. Did the study use thematic coding? Discourse analysis? Content analysis? Part 4 of the study should be put at the start of the article, not at the end.

The study claims to critically analyze media propaganda, yet it mostly compiles examples of Islamophobic media without critically engaging with the mechanisms of media bias (e.g., editorial policies, political influences). The paper assumes that all media portrayals of Islam are negative, without acknowledging the diversity of European media landscapes. It does not examine how some media outlets challenge Islamophobic narratives.

Conflation of "Islam" and "Muslim": The study sometimes uses Islam (the religion) and Muslims (the people) interchangeably. This can create confusion in its arguments.

The study lacks proper engagement with media theories: The study does not reference key theories from media and communication studies, such as: framing theory (how news frames shape public perception); agenda-setting theory (how media prioritizes certain topics);     propaganda models.  There is limited discussion on digital media and social media algorithms- the study does not analyze how social media algorithms (e.g., Twitter, Facebook, YouTube) contribute to the spread of Islamophobia. There is no engagement with disinformation studies, e.g., how fake news about Islam spreads.

 The analysis of the European Islamophobia Reports (2015–2023) is insufficient when assessed through the lens of phenomenology. Phenomenology as a research method focuses on subjective lived experiences- how individuals personally experience a phenomenon, in this case, Islamophobia. The study primarily relies on secondary sources (European Islamophobia Reports), which document media narratives and statistical data but do not directly capture individual experiences of Islamophobia. A true phenomenological approach would require interviews, first-hand testimonies, or ethnographic observations of Muslims experiencing Islamophobia. While the reports are useful for content analysis, they do not fulfill the phenomenological goal of understanding how individuals make sense of discrimination and bias.

 The study would benefit from conceptual refinement by incorporating: Brubaker, R. (2012). Categories of analysis and categories of practice: a note on the study of Muslims in European countries of immigration. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 36(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2012.729674

Comments on the Quality of English Language

The English language quality in the study needs significant improvement to enhance clarity, coherence, and readability. Example:

The emergence of Islamophobia accurately conceptualizes categories of racism that were not doing or similar to anti-Semitism in mobilizing counter to such a form of injustice as it continuously circulates in the public discourse.   

-Grammatically incorrect (e.g., "were not doing or similar to" is meaningless).   

-Unclear subject and verb relationship (what does "mobilizing counter" mean?).

Author Response

Thank you for the comments and suggestions you have made in order to improve and develop the discourse we presented in the article. Your contribution will be valued and appreciated as we have taken notes and adjustments to follow it through. Again, we thank you for the efforts. Please find the complete authors' reply to the review report in the attachment.

Author Response File: Author Response.pdf

Reviewer 2 Report

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

The article under review tackles a timely topic. European right-wing politicians have recently met in Madrid and called for a new reconquista, as if Europe were under Islamic colonization. The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the rise of Islamophobia in Western Europe from 2015 to 2023, correlating it with increased Muslim migration, demographic changes, and significant socio-political events such as the 9/11 attacks and the 2005 London bombings. It highlights how media representation plays a crucial role in shaping public perceptions of Muslims, often framing them negatively as threats or symbols of violence, which exacerbates anti-immigrant sentiments. The study utilizes qualitative methods, including thematic coding and discourse analysis of European Islamophobia Reports, to explore the intersection of anti-Muslim and anti-immigrant sentiments across countries like Spain, the Netherlands, France, Germany, and the UK. Findings indicate a paradox between Europe’s advocacy for diversity and the realities of discrimination faced by Muslim communities. The article concludes by emphasizing the need for reform in migration policies, media representation, and collaborative efforts to combat Islamophobia, suggesting actionable recommendations for fostering inclusivity and protecting the rights of Muslim individuals in Europe.

I read both the original manuscript and the corrected version. The article is well-corrected, and the author must take the comments into very close consideration. In general terms, the article is well-written. The author should italicize the titles of books, e.g., Orientalism on page 2.

I support its publication in Religions.

Comments for author File: Comments.pdf

Comments on the Quality of English Language

The language has been corrected by one of the blind reviewers. Generally, the language is good, and it can be can be refined by the Journal's editing team. 

Author Response

Comments 1: The article under review tackles a timely topic. European right-wing politicians have recently met in Madrid and called for a new reconquista, as if Europe were under Islamic colonization. The article presents a comprehensive analysis of the rise of Islamophobia in Western Europe from 2015 to 2023, correlating it with increased Muslim migration, demographic changes, and significant socio-political events such as the 9/11 attacks and the 2005 London bombings. It highlights how media representation plays a crucial role in shaping public perceptions of Muslims, often framing them negatively as threats or symbols of violence, which exacerbates anti-immigrant sentiments. The study utilizes qualitative methods, including thematic coding and discourse analysis of European Islamophobia Reports, to explore the intersection of anti-Muslim and anti-immigrant sentiments across countries like Spain, the Netherlands, France, Germany, and the UK. Findings indicate a paradox between Europe’s advocacy for diversity and the realities of discrimination faced by Muslim communities. The article concludes by emphasizing the need for reform in migration policies, media representation, and collaborative efforts to combat Islamophobia, suggesting actionable recommendations for fostering inclusivity and protecting the rights of Muslim individuals in Europe.

Response 1: We sincerely thank you for your valuable review, constructive comments, and kind support for the publication of our article in Religions. We truly appreciate your thoughtful feedback and are grateful for your endorsement. Comments 2: I read both the original manuscript and the corrected version. The article is well-corrected, and the author must take the comments into very close consideration. In general terms, the article is well-written. The author should italicize the titles of books, e.g., Orientalism on page 2.   I support its publication in Religions. Response 2: In response to your suggestion, we have italicized the titles of books in the reference section as follow: Aslan, E. (ed.). 2020. Migration, Religion and Early Childhood Education. Wiesbaden: Springer VS. – page number 13, and line 889. Aslan, E. and Yıldız, E. 2024. Muslim Religiosity in the Digital Transformation: How Young People Deal with Images of Islam in the Media. Wiesbaden: Springer VS. –  page number 13, and line 893. Allen, C. (2010). Islamophobia. MPG Book Groups. – page number 13, and line 894. Creswell, J. W. (2014). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Sage. – page number 13, and line 919. Howe, J. (2019). Contemporary mawlids in Chicago. In Global Sufism: Boundaries, Structures, and Politics. C.Hurst & Co (Publishers) Ltd., – page number 13, and line 932.]   Additionally, we also have added the page number on the manuscript specifically on line 110, 313, 375, 529, and 687. However, we do not add the page number on line 356 because we only state the general information regarding the focus of their study.

Author Response File: Author Response.docx

Reviewer 3 Report

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

The article suffers from incoherence in terms of methodology and lack of original contribution to scholarship. It should be rejected unless the authors are willing to rewrite it.

The introduction should start by discussing the role of media in Islamophobia, reviewing main academic literature and findings. this means deleting all paragraphs on Muslims and migration to Europe. These elements are well-known and too general to figure in a short scientific article. Review of literature also means engaging with the findings and not just describing what others say, which the authors tend to do in this article.

Element 3: Although the topic of Islamophobic Framing in Western Media is presented here without novel findings, it can be the focus of this study provided the authors engage in academic discussions with existing Western sociological literature. The authors should expand this section further through comparing their results to the findings of other research papers on the topic. At least three solid pages are needed here to make a contribution to scholarship.

 Element “4. Cold War and The Muslim Migration” should be deleted as it is too general for a scientific article and takes the discussion back to context and history. Moreover, the authors provided enough historical context in the introduction on Muslims in Europe. 

The problem of focus: There is also a lack of focus and an overlapping between emphasizing the role of the media in Islamophobic framing and Islamophobia in general (which can be the result of political parties, government policies, or other players). The article should be rewritten to focus solely on the role of media, and this applies to the introduction as well. Since dozens of studies exist on the Islamophobic role of media in the West, the authors must explore an angle that is not common in the academic literature.

Author Response

Comments 1: The article suffers from incoherence in terms of methodology and lack of original contribution to scholarship. It should be rejected unless the authors are willing to rewrite it.

Response 1: Thank you for criticizing the paper we made, we appreciate the meaningful suggestions. However, I/We would not agree with this comment, because the European Islamophobia Reports since the publication until recent have not been analyzed by other research institutes which an opportunity for future research to hold an examination to the reports. I/we have changed several points to strengthen and to defend our arguments to have literature-based analysis in European Islamophobia Report(s) as the reports itself claim not an academic work, instead collection of data/ record about Islamophobic events. We are strongly willing to rewrite it better, but not from a zero scratch.

Comments 2: The introduction should start by discussing the role of media in Islamophobia, reviewing main academic literature and findings. this means deleting all paragraphs on Muslims and migration to Europe. These elements are well-known and too general to figure in a short scientific article. Review of literature also means engaging with the findings and not just describing what others say, which the authors tend to do in this article.

Response 2: Agree. I/We have, accordingly, followed the suggestions. Thank you for pointing this out. Therefore, I/we have deleted the paragraphs in line 616-734 as you may check it in order to emphasize this point. The other points about the literature review, we sought to engage the findings with our arguments which are similar to the selected academic works we used in this research. That is why reviewer could see examples from line 279-291 interlink with 490-501 and 606-615 which aimed to strengthen our analysis and engagement. “[This statement illustrates how Islamophobic discourse is deeply embedded in certain media narratives, perpetuating fear-based perceptions that align with dominant ideological filters described in PM]”

Comments 3: Element 3: Although the topic of Islamophobic Framing in Western Media is presented here without novel findings, it can be the focus of this study provided the authors engage in academic discussions with existing Western sociological literature. The authors should expand this section further through comparing their results to the findings of other research papers on the topic. At least three solid pages are needed here to make a contribution to scholarship.

Response 3: Agree. I/We have, accordingly, added the solid three pages in line 291-421 as a new sub-chapter entitled “Landscape of Religious Development in the West” to emphasize this point. We open the chapter by using previous research that useful for this research in regards with the study of religion and migration. Hence, we took out the word and modified it as follow, “[The rapid growth of the Muslim population in Europe began in the 1990s, which was marked by a high birth rate among Muslim immigrants from Morocco who migrated to Spain and other countries (Aslan, 2020).]”

Comments 4: "Element”4. Cold War and The Muslim Migration” should be deleted as it is too general for a scientific article and takes the discussion back to context and history. Moreover, the authors provided enough historical context in the introduction on Muslims in Europe.

Response 4: Agree. I/We have, accordingly, deleted the sub-chapter 4. Cold War and Muslim Migration line 590-708 and we don’t change anything in introduction as it deemed as sufficient to provide historical context and introduction on Muslims in Europe.

Comments 5: The problem of focus: There is also a lack of focus and an overlapping between emphasizing the role of the media in Islamophobic framing and Islamophobia in general (which can be the result of political parties, government policies, or other players). The article should be rewritten to focus solely on the role of media, and this applies to the introduction as well. Since dozens of studies exist on the Islamophobic role of media in the West, the authors must explore an angle that is not common in the academic literature.

Response 5: Somehow disagree. I/We have, actually analyzed nine years long reports and pointing out data collection and records related to the media discussion from European Islamophobia Report(s). We focus on the locus of Western European Countries, instead of focus on European Union Countries, that is why we add the United Kingdom to emphasize our focus. Otherwise, the study will just explore the impact of media and policy made by European Union in Western European Countries, and won’t expand it to global trend like happened in the US in the post 9/11. Although, the UK is officially left EU in early 2021 where we see gradual change in the reception of Muslim compared to other Western European Countries as EU member states.

4. Response to Comments on the Quality of English Language

Point 1: The English is fine and does not require any improvement.

Response 1: Due to comment of reviewer which testified the English is fine, we are decided to not improve it much. Only, cross-checking the sentences and terms we used to make it easier to read.

Author Response File: Author Response.pdf

Round 2

Reviewer 1 Report

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

While explicit research questions and hypotheses are not formally stated, the core inquiries are discernible through the narrative—specifically, the study examines how media contributes to the construction and spread of Islamophobia in Western Europe, and how anti-Muslim sentiment intersects with anti-immigration narratives between 2015 and 2023. However, these research questions should be more clearly and explicitly articulated in the introduction to enhance the study’s clarity and focus.

Author Response

Comment 1: While explicit research questions and hypotheses are not formally stated, the core inquiries are discernible through the narrative—specifically, the study examines how media contributes to the construction and spread of Islamophobia in Western Europe, and how anti-Muslim sentiment intersects with anti-immigration narratives between 2015 and 2023. However, these research questions should be more clearly and explicitly articulated in the introduction to enhance the study’s clarity and focus.

 

Response 1: Thank you for giving a meaningful and important suggestion to the paper we made, we appreciate it. I/We would agree with this comment. Therefore, I/we have changed exactly the point to strengthen and to make clearer the study’s clarity and focus. Please find the sentence from line 223-227 which stated, “Based on this background, this study will focus on two main research questions: 1) How did the media shape and spread Islamophobia in Western Europe from 2015 to 2023? and 2) How does anti-Muslim sentiment intersect with anti-immigration narratives in Western European countries such as Spain, the Netherlands, France, Germany, and the UK?”

Author Response File: Author Response.pdf

Reviewer 3 Report

Comments and Suggestions for Authors

The new version addresses my concerns. I have no further remarks.

Author Response

Comments 1: The new version addresses my concerns. I have no further remarks.

Response 1: Thank you for giving a meaningful and important suggestion to the paper we made, we appreciate it. I/We would agree with this comment. Therefore, I/we have not changed anything, but fix the error, mispelling, and typo in the whole paper

Author Response File: Author Response.pdf