The Influence of Ming Dynasty Buddhism’s Chan Jing He Yi (Integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) on Buddhist Thought in Journey to the West

Abstract

In the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, Yunqi Zhuhong 雲栖祩宏 and Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭 integrated Zen thought and Pure Land Buddhism based on the fusion of various Buddhist sects, which facilitated the transition to Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). In this context, Journey to the West 西遊記, published in the late Ming Dynasty, reflects the characteristic of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). Based on the historical fact that the monk Xuanzang 玄奘 journeyed to India to seek Buddhist scriptures during the Tang Dynasty’s Zhenguan period, four relatively complete literary works that recount the stories of this westward journey were published over nearly a thousand years, from the Tang Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty: Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話, the Journey to the West drama 西遊記雜劇, and Journey to the West. The Buddhist ideas in these four works went through a transformation from advocating yoga theory 瑜伽論 to advocating belief in Vaisravana 毗沙門天王信仰 and then to focusing on the “mind nature 心性” theory of Zen Buddhism. Finally, in Journey to the West, Buddhist thought is aimed at achieving rebirth in the Western Pure Land and supplemented with Chan Buddhist practices, which are aligned with the trend of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). In Journey to the West, the concepts of Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性) and Ji Xin Ji Fo (the mind is the Buddha 即心即佛) differ from the Zen Buddhism concept of seeing one’s own nature. Instead, it requires seeking other Buddhas and ascending to the Western Pure Land to meet Amitabha Buddha in order to achieve complete spiritual cultivation. This had changed from the Wei Xin Jing Tu (mind-only Pure Land 唯心淨土) theory advocated by Zen Buddhism to the Xi Fang Jing Tu (Western Pure Land 西方淨土) theory advocated by the Pure Land School. The numerous depictions of Pure Land cultivation methods, such as Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛), Chi Jie (commandment keeping 持戒), and the Pure Land reincarnation-type Guanyin faith 淨土往生型觀音信仰, also appear in Journey to the West, reflecting the profound influence of Chan Jing He Yi 禪淨合一 in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty on Journey to the West.

1. Introduction

From the first transmission by Bodhidharma to the Ming Dynasty, Zen gradually integrated with the Pure Land Sect. With the emergence of Zen masters Yunqi Zhuhong 雲栖祩宏 and Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭 in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, Buddhism in this period completed its transformation to Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). In this context, the Buddhist ideas presented in the late Ming Dynasty novel Journey to the West reflect the characteristics of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). Based on the historical fact that the monk Xuanzang 玄奘 went to India to seek Buddhist scriptures during the Tang Dynasty’s Zhenguan period, various literary works of the Journey to the West stories genre 西遊故事 have emerged, spanning nearly a thousand years from the Tang Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty. Among them, the more complete ones are the Tang Dynasty’s Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, the Song Dynasty’s Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話, the Yuan Dynasty’s Journey to the West drama 西遊記雜劇, and the later Ming Dynasty’s novel Journey to the West 西遊记. The changes in Buddhist thought reflected in these four literary works demonstrate the development of Chinese Buddhism from the Tang Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty. Ultimately, with the expansion of the influence of Pure Land thought in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, Journey to the West presents the characteristic of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一), with Zen serving as an auxiliary method, and having the ultimate aim of rebirth in the Western Pure Land.

There are relatively few research results on the exploration of Buddhist ideas in literary works such as the Journey to the West stories genre before the completion of Journey to the West. Chinese scholar Yu Shiling 俞士玲 believed that the Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan was about the Maitreya faith (S. Yu 2001, pp. 119–25). Wang Limin 王麗敏 believed that the belief in Vaisravana 毗沙門天王信仰 belonged to the Tantric faith 密宗 (L. Wang 2011, pp. 215–26). Mao Xiaoyu 毛小雨 believed that the play was a blend of Buddhism and Taoism (X. Mao 2004, pp. 47–57). In his book A Study of Journey to the West, Japanese sinologist Taitian Chenfu 太田辰夫 explored the belief in Vaisravana in the Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua (Taitian 2017, p. 25). American scholar Ping Shao in Huineng, Subhūti and Monkey’s Religion in “Xiyou ji” mentioned that Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話 and the Journey to the West drama were relatively pure Buddhist journeys (Ping Shao 2006, pp. 713–40). While these studies have paid attention to the Buddhist elements in several Journey to the West story genres, they have not conducted an in-depth analysis of the Buddhist ideas within them.

Scholars have conducted extensive discussions on the Buddhist thought in Journey to the West. First, analyzing from the perspective of “three religions in one 三教合一”. Chinese scholar Li Angang believed that Journey to the West was mainly based on Taoism and supplemented by Buddhism (A. Li 2000, pp. 5–12). American sinologist Anthony C. Yu 余國藩 proposed that Journey to the West had both Buddhist karmic themes and Taoist fables (A. Yu 1983, pp. 202–30). American sinologist Andrew H. Plaks 浦安迪 believed in The Four Great Classical Novels of the Ming Dynasty that Journey to the West mainly embodied Taoist philosophy, but also had the Buddhist thought of “emptiness” (Plaks 2006, p. 223). Second is the study of Mahayana Buddhist thought in Journey to the West. Hong Kong Sik, Fat Chi 釋佛智 provided a profound analysis of the Yogacara, Madhyamaka, Zen, and Pure Land ideas in Journey to the West in his book On Buddhist Thought in Journey to the West (F. Sik 2017, p. 115). C.T. Hsia 夏志清, an American sinologist, proposed in his book On the History of Chinese Classical Novels that the Mahayana Buddhist ideas in the Heart Sutra were the central theme of Journey to the West (Hsia 2001, p. 129). American sinologist Victor H. Mair 梅維恒 also believed that the Heart Sutra was the center of Journey to the West (Mair 2004, pp. 45–64). Vietnamese scholar Nguren Dinh Minh Duc’s 阮廷明德 Buddhist Thought in Journey to the West comprehensively analyzed the doctrines of Prajnaparamita, Yogacara, and Zen Buddhism in Journey to the West (Nguren 2009, p. 59). Finally, there is an exploration of Zen philosophy in Journey to the West. The Chinese scholar Zhang Yanshu 張豔姝 mentioned that Journey to the West embodied the Zen philosophy of “Nian Yuan Yu Xin 念源於心” in her book Annotations on Buddhist Zen Thought in Journey to the West (Y. Zhang 2015, p. 141). The Korean scholar Lee, Hyejeong (이혜정李惠貞) in The Buddhist Thoughts and Practices Presented in the Platform Sutra and Journey to the West believed Journey to the West was influenced by Zen Buddhism (Lee 2018, pp. 213–37).

The above research has explored the Buddhist thought in Journey to the West from various aspects and has achieved fruitful results. However, existing research tends to attach importance to interpreting the Buddhist thought of various sects from the text of Journey to the West, while lacking attention to the relationship between the development of and changes to ancient Chinese Buddhism and the Buddhist thought in Journey to the West, as well as the significant increase in the influence of the Pure Land Sect in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty and the characteristic of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) in Journey to the West. At the same time, there is a lack of coherent analysis of the evolution of Buddhist thought in various texts of the Journey to the West stories genre. The innovation of this article is to include Journey to the West and its four important Journey to the West stories genre from the Tang Dynasty to the Ming Dynasty in the research scope and analyze the changes in Buddhist thought, especially in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, under the influence of Yunqi Zhuhong 雲栖祩宏 and Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭, when Zen Buddhism completed the transformation to Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) from a theoretical perspective. In this context, the Buddhist thought reflected in Journey to the West ultimately formed the concept of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) with Zen serving as a supplement and the ultimate aim being rebirth in the Pure Land in the West, providing new insights for the study of Buddhist thought in Journey to the West.

2. The Development of Buddhist Thought in Various Texts of Journey to the West Stories Genre Before the Completion of Journey to the West

Starting from the third year of Tang Dynasty Zhenguan (629), the monk Xuanzang traveled to India for seventeen years to retrieve Sanskrit Buddhist scriptures. After returning home, he recounted his observations, which were compiled into the Da Tang Xi Yu Ji 大唐西域記 by his disciples. As Da Tang Xi Yu Ji is closer to geographical records, it is not within the scope of this study. Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話, and the Journey to the West drama are relatively complete texts for the Journey to the West stories genre before the novel was completed. Below, we will explore the Buddhist ideas presented in the three works.

First, in the Tang Dynasty’s Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, there was a reverence for the ideology of Yogacara. This biography was written by Xuanzang’s disciples Huili 慧立 and Yancong 彥悰 and was completed in the fourth year of the Chuigong reign of Empress Wu Zetian 武則天 (688). According to the biography, Xuanzang devoted himself to studying Buddhist scriptures after his ordination in Luoyang 洛陽 in his early years. However, he was troubled by the different interpretations of the scriptures by various schools of thought at that time: “The monks visited all the teachers, thoroughly studied their theories, carefully examined their meanings, each specialized in their own path, and verified with Buddhist scriptures, but also had hidden differences. He did not know how to proceed, so he swore to travel to the West to to inquire about doubtful points, and took the Shi Qi Di Lun to dispel doubts, which is now known as the Yu Jia Shi Di Lun. 法師既遍謁眾師, 備餐其說, 詳考其義, 各擅宗途, 驗之聖典, 亦隱顯有异, 莫知適從, 乃誓遊西方以問所惑, 並取《十七地論》以釋眾疑, 即今之《瑜伽師地論》也”. (Hui and Yan 2006, p. 10) It can be seen that Xuanzang believed that the Yu Jia Shi Di Lun was the key to solving all the doubts in Buddhist scriptures, so he went through hardships. He arrived at Nalanda Temple 那爛陀寺 in the Magadha Kingdom 摩揭陀國 in India and studied Yoga theory with Master Jiexian 戒賢. Master Jiexian was a practitioner of Mahayana Buddhism’s Yoga practice school. He was once the abbot of Nalanda Monastery in Magadha, India, and spread the doctrine of Yogacara. According to scriptures such as the Yu Jia Shi Di Lun, he classified Buddhism as the Three Stages: Being, Emptiness, and Middle (You, Kong, Zhong 有, 空, 中).

In the Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, it was described that Xuanzang listened to Master Jiexian’s lecture on Yu Jia Shi Di Lun 瑜伽師地論 for a long time, and the scene was grand: “Returning to Nalanda Temple, Master Jiexian was invited to lecture on Yu Jia Lun 瑜伽論 with thousands of listeners……. After fifteen months, the lecture was completed 還歸那爛陀寺, 方請戒賢法師講《瑜伽論》, 同聽者數千人……十五月講徹”. (Hui and Yan 2006, p. 74). After Xuanzang studied Yu Jia Shi Di Lun 瑜伽師地論 with Master Jiexian 戒賢, he collected his thoughts and wrote the Hui Zong Lun 會宗論, which he then presented at a Dharma assembly attended by thousands of people in Qunu City 曲女城. No one from different sects could refute his Dharma theory. These descriptions demonstrated the supreme status of the Yu Jia Shi Di Lun 瑜伽師地論. According to the disciple of Master Jiexian, Buddhabhadra 佛陀跋陀羅, Jiexian was enlightened by Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩薩 and passed down the Yu Jia Shi Di Lun, which stated, “You should obey my will, manifest the Yu Jia Lun 當依我語, 顯揚正法《瑜伽論》……”. (Hui and Yan 2006, p. 67). The widely circulated Yu Jia Shi Di Lun 瑜伽師地論 was described as an act of respecting the will of Manjusri Bodhisattva, which undoubtedly elevated the revered status of the Yogacara ideology as the “true Dharma”, indicating that the Mahayana Yogacara doctrine was the most fundamental among all teachings. After Xuanzang returned to China, he translated scriptures using Yogacara philosophy to connect everything. The Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳 emphasized Xuanzang’s emphasis on the Yu Jia Shi Di Lun 瑜伽師地論 during his journey to the west, reflecting his admiration for the Yogacara school of thought and believing it as the fundamental principle of Buddhism, “the Buddhist principle of Consciousness-Only that Master Xuanzang put all his effort into propagating, delineating the path of cultivation for Buddhist practitioners” (Fan 2016, pp. 301–4).

Secondly, belief in the Vaisravana 毗沙門天王 was prominent in the Song Dynasty’s Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話. The time of the completion of Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua is quite controversial1. Chen Yinchi, based on previous research, concluded that it was written in the Song Dynasty: “It should be an intermediate between the genre of Bianwen storytelling and the art of Song and Yuan speaking art. It was an early form of storytelling that had been adjusted through the Song Dynasty’s way of story-telling and even the act of publishing” (Chen 2014, pp. 69–80). The most prominent Buddhist thought in Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話 was the belief in Vaisravana. In the third section, after delivering a lecture at the Crystal Palace of the Vaisravana Mahābrahmā 北方毗沙門大梵天王, Xuanzang earnestly requested the Heavenly King to bless and protect him from danger on his journey to obtain the scriptures. “The Heavenly King bestowed upon him an invisible hat, a tin cane with golden ring, and a Alms bowl 天王賜得隱形帽一事, 金環錫杖一條, 缽盂一隻”. (Li and Cai 1997, p. 6). He promised that, if the master and disciple encountered difficulties on their journey to obtain the scriptures, “Shout ’Vaisravana King’ far away from the Heavenly Palace, which would be helpful (遙指天宮大叫‘天王’一聲, 當有救用)” (Li and Cai 1997, p. 6).

The whole book consisted of seventeen sections. Except for a few missing sections, in the relatively complete fourteen sections, there are seven instances that mention the protection of Vaisravana for Xuanzang’s pilgrimage. Mahābrahmā was originally one of the three major gods in Hinduism and later became the Shakyamuni’s 釋迦牟尼 right-hand attendant; Vaisravana was originally the heavenly god Kubera 俱毗羅 in ancient Hinduism and later became one of the four great protectors of Buddhism, also known as the right-hand attendant of Shakyamuni. Therefore, there would be an overlap between the Vaisravana and the Mahābrahmā, and the “Vaisravana Mahābrahmā” in the Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua combined the two into one. According to The Ritual for Vaisravana Protecting Buddhist doctrine with the emperor 北方毗沙門天王隨君護法儀軌, in the first year of Tianbao (742), Anxi City 安西城 was besieged by Tubo 吐蕃. Emperor Xuanzong of Tang 唐玄宗 invited Master Bukong 不空 to open an altar and invite the Vaisravana to assist. Later, Vaisravana appeared at the gate tower in the north of the city to assist in the battle and defeated Tubo 吐蕃. Therefore, Emperor Xuanzong of Tang ordered the worship of a statue of Vaisravana in the gate tower. So, during the Tang and the Five Dynasties, the worship of Vaisravana was the most popular, and this trend was followed in the Song Dynasty, gradually declining during the Yuan and Ming Dynasties. Therefore, the expression of the belief in the Vaisravana in the Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話, written during the Song Dynasty, is also in line with the characteristics of the times. Some scholars believe that the belief in the Vaisravana was prevalent in Khotan 於闐 during the Tang Dynasty. During the An Lushan 安祿山 Rebellion, it entered the central plains and expanded to Anxi 安西, Chang’an 長安, and the entire Han ethnic region. “The belief in the Vaisravana was not only popular in the Western Regions 西域, Dunhuang 敦煌, and the two Capitals 兩京, but also in Luzhou 潞州 and other places” (Z. Wu 2022, pp. 103–9).

Third, there is the Zen tendency in the Yuan Dynasty’s Journey to the West drama. There has always been great controversy over the author and completion time of the drama Journey to the West2. Based on the existing views in the academic community, the author believes that the main body of the miscellaneous drama Journey to the West should have been written in the Yuan Dynasty and later revised by Yang Jingxian 楊景賢. In the miscellaneous drama Journey to the West, Zen philosophy runs through the entire story. As American scholar Ping Shao said: “The dual objectives in his directions completely transform the nature of a simple Buddhist journey story we find in the acknowledged predecessors of the Ming novel” (Ping Shao 2006, pp. 713–40). In the third episode of the drama “Jiang Liu Ren Qin 江流認親”, the monk Danxia 丹霞 from Jinshan Temple 金山寺, who adopted Tang Sanzang 唐僧, claimed to be “a disciple of the fifth Ancestors of Mount Lu 廬山五祖之弟子” (J. Wang 1999, p. 414). In his early years, the fifth patriarch of Zen Buddhism, Hongren 弘忍, lived with his master Daoxin 道信 at the Dalin Temple大林寺 on Mount Lu for ten years. In this drama, Hongren might be referred to as the fifth patriarch of Mount Lu based on this, and Master Danxia used this to clarify his Zen descendants. The 21st “Koan of the Poor Woman 貧婆心印” is a concentrated expression of Zen philosophy in the drama Journey to the West. The lyrics of the Poor Woman’s performance on stage are “Listen to the sound of the bell and chime in Leiyin Temple, sit at the gate of Lingjiu Mountain. Often use wonderful Dharma, deeply cultivate good roots. You will not need words, do not read scriptures. Instantly see the nature, and directly inherit it 聽雷音鐘磬, 坐靈鷲山門。常開妙法, 深種良根。不須文字, 豈念經文。霎時見性, 直下當承” (J. Wang 1999, p. 489). This embodies the core idea of Zen Buddhism, which is no reliance on words, a special transmission outside the orthodox teaching, directly targeting the heart, and becoming a Buddha by seeing one’s nature (不立文字, 教外別傳。直指人心, 見性成佛). The keen words between the Poor Woman and Tang Monk are truly excellent:

Poor Woman: May I ask senior brother, can your heart be enlightened 我問師兄, 心可點乎?

Tang Monk: Mind not abiding anywhere, What will be used to enlighten 心無所住, 將以何點?

Poor Woman: What to do now If there is no heart? The heart is the foundation of human beings 人無心何主? 心乃人之根本.

Tang Monk: Before I receive it, it is not with me; When I have it, it is not with him. As the raft metaphor, the raft should still be abandoned, let alone non Dharma未得時, 在他非在我; 既得時, 在我非在他。如筏喻者, 筏尚應舍, 何况非法?

Poor Woman: If you can transmit mind, let alone a heart, then your illusionary body will still be a speck of dust 你若是能傳心印, 休說是心, 則你那幻軀也猶是微塵 (J. Wang 1999, p. 491)

The Poor Woman and Tang Monk engaged in a debate about the concept of “heart”. They discussed the meaning of “heart” several times, involving the food Dim sum, a human flesh heart, and Zen’s pure heart. The Tang Monk never fell into the thinking trap set by the Poor Woman. He responded to the Poor Woman’s question with the phrase “mind not abiding anywhere 心無所住” and then used a raft metaphor to explain the Zen philosophy of insight. The phrase “mind not abiding anywhere 心無所住” originates from the Diamond Sutra, which states that “one should not dwell on form to create the mind, nor should one dwell on sound, fragrance, taste, touch, or Dharma to create the mind, and should create a mind without a dwelling place 不應住色生心, 不應住聲, 香, 味, 觸, 法生心, 應生無所住心” (Chen and Shang 2007b, p. 46). Only by dwelling without a dwelling place can one create a pure mind. The “Raft Metaphor 筏喻” comes from the Great Alizha Sutra 大品阿梨吒经. The Buddha spoke of the Raft Metaphor for Bhikkhu Alizha 阿梨咤比丘, metaphorically referring to the Buddha’s teachings as a raft. Once they reached the other side of Nirvana, the method should also be abandoned, that is, “the Dharma should be abandoned, let alone the non-Dharma 法尚應舍, 何况非法”. Finally, the Poor Woman concluded that if Tang Sanzang could comprehend the “mind transmission” of Zen Buddhism, he would understand that both the heart and the body are illusions. “Koan 心印” is the way of transmitting Zen Buddhism, advocating for not using written language and transmitting the mind directly to the other, achieving Buddhahood upon seeing one’s nature. These keen words revolve around the understanding of the “heart” and demonstrate the core idea of Zen Buddhism’s realization of the inherent Buddha nature of all sentient beings. Although the Journey to the West drama expresses a profound understanding of Zen philosophy, due to limitations in length and style, Zen philosophy has not been integrated throughout the entire play and is mostly presented in fragmented form, As Anthony C. Yu said: “But the drama, however long, cannot equal the inherent capaciousness of a narrative in portraying the duration, magnitude, and vicissitudes of a protracted pilgrimage” (A. Yu 1983, pp. 202–30).

Before the completion of Journey to the West, the Buddhist ideas in various texts of the Journey to the West story genre went through development and changes from the reverence for Yogacara in the Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, to the belief in the Vaisravana毗沙門天王 in the Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話 and then to the Zen belief in the Journey to the West drama, demonstrating the influence of mainstream Buddhist ideas in different eras on the Buddhist ideas of the Journey to the West story genre.

3. The Thought Process of Chan Jing He Yi (Integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) in Journey to the West

3.1. The Transformation of Buddhism in the Ming Dynasty Toward Chan Jing He Yi (Integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一)

In the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, driven by Yuqi Zhuhong and Ouyi Zhixu, the Wei Xin Jing Tu (mind-only Pure Land 唯心淨土) advocated by Zen became the pursuit of the Xi Fang Jing Tu (Western Pure Land 西方淨土), completing the transformation of Buddhist thought to Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). The concept of Chan Jing He Yi 禪淨合一 was not limited to the Buddhist sect, and its influence quickly spread throughout society and into the literary realm.

Although Zen Buddhism was the most prosperous among the various Buddhist sects in the Ming Dynasty, the Zen sect of the Ming Dynasty became fully integrated with the Pure Land sect. The fusion of Zen and Pure Land can be traced back to Huiyuan 慧遠 in the Eastern Jin Dynasty, but the Pure Land practice established by Huiyuan “was influenced by the pratyutpanna samadhi Sutra, which is known as the Samadhi of chanting Amitabha. This has been widely admitted by scholars throughout history and is generally credible 受般舟三昧經影響, 乃是念佛三昧, 此為古今學者共論, 大致可信” (Liu 2001, p. 478). Huiyuan is associated with the practice of reciting Buddha’s teachings, part of the Zen philosophy, rather than the Pure Land sect’s advocacy for Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha 稱名念佛) in order to attain the Pure Land. At the beginning of the Song Dynasty and the Five Dynasties period, Zen master Yongming Yanshou 永明延壽 concurrently promoted the Pure Land while still believing in the Wei Xin Jing Tu (mind-only Pure Land 唯心淨土). As Robert H. Sharf said, “like his predecessors, Yen-shou insists that the Pure Land is to be sought only in the mind-a position known as Mind-only Pure Land” (Sharf 2002, pp. 282–331). Most Zen masters in the early and mid-Ming Dynasty continued the previous trend of emphasizing both Zen practice and the chanting of Amitabha. For example, in the middle period, Chu Shan Shaoqi 楚山紹琦 (1404–1473) advocated for the practice of chanting Buddha. “Shaoqi actively integrated into the Ming Dynasty’s trend of emphasizing both Zen and other doctrinal Buddhist sects, Xing Xiang Yi Yuan (noumenal and phenomenal have the same origin 性相一源), and combining the Zen philosophy of Ji Xin Ji Fo (the mind is Buddha 即心即佛) with the popular method of chanting Amitabha after the Northern Song Dynasty, forming a traditional and unique method of the Can Jiu Nian Fo (Research on Nembutsu 參究念佛)” (Deguang 2014, pp. 72–73).

During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, with the four eminent monks Yunqi Zhunhong 雲栖祩宏 (1535–1615), Zibai Zhenke 紫柏真可 (1543–1603), Hanshan Deqing 憨山德清 (1546–1623), and Ouyi ZhiXu 蕅益智旭 (1599–1655), the Zen Buddhism of the Ming Dynasty shifted to Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一), with the ultimate aim of reaching the Western Pure Land. Hanshan Deqing 憨山德清 initially practiced Zen. Later, he lived on Lushan Mountain and specialized in cultivating the Pure Land. In his Jing Tu Zhi Gui Xu 淨土指歸序, he said “Just like the Pure Land Sect, various capacities adapted to humans are used, the insight and the gradual realization be used, there is nothing that cannot be included. The so-called crossing of the three divisions of the universe is the most victorious Dharma sect. 若淨土一門, 普被三根, 頓漸齊入, 無機不攝。所謂橫超三界, 是為最勝法門” (Hanshan Deqing 1989, p. 603a). Hanshan Deqing continued to advocate for the Wei Xin Jing Tu (mind-only Pure Land 唯心淨土) and emphasized the equal importance of Zen and other doctrinal Buddhist sects. Although Zibai Zhenke 紫柏真可 recognized the simple and practical method of cultivating the Pure Land and advocated chanting Amitabha, he still started from the Zen Buddhism perspective, believing that chanting Amitabha is mindfulness, and the self-mind is Buddha–nature. Although he sought rebirth, he ultimately did not depart from the self-mind. He once said, “Therefore, Mount Lu’s Huiyuan first established the theory of nature and then opened the White Lotus Society, No more than that. If the nature is unclear, then the emotional barrier will not be broken, and if the emotional barrier will not be broken, then the body and mind will be restricted, and it will never be able to be released 故廬山先造法性論, 次開白蓮社, 非無以也。蓋法性不明, 則情關不破, 情關不破, 則身心執受, 終不能消釋” (Zibai Zhenke 1989, p. 204a). During Yunqi Zhuhong’s 雲栖祩宏 time, the relationship between Zen and Pure Land began to undergo significant changes. Yunqi Zhuhong did not have high requirements for the nature of the mind. He attached great importance to chanting Amitabha and regarded the Western Pure Land as his destination. He said, “Therefore, it is known that although Zen practitioners contemplate their true selves, they may as well make a vow, wishing for Western Paradise when their life comes to an end 故知參禪人雖念念究自本心, 而不妨發願, 願命終時往生極樂” (Yunqi Zhuhong 1987, p. 50b). The driving role of Yunqi Zhuhong in promoting Chan Jing He Yi 禪淨合一 has been noted by scholars: “The view advocating the belief in Amitabha Buddha’s Pure Land as the ultimate method for integrating Zen Buddhism has existed since the early Ming Dynasty, and later reached its peak in the teachings of Yunqi Zhuhong” (X. Wang 2022, pp. 276–93). Ouyi ZhiXu 蕅益智旭, who came slightly later than Yunqi Zhuhong 雲栖祩宏, advocated for the integration and consensus of various Buddhist sects. In A Mi Tuo Jing Yao Jie 阿彌陀經要解, Ouyi Zhixu said, “Amitabha Buddha is a name of great virtue, and virtue can be obtained through his name, which is inexhaustible. Therefore, holding the name is the right way to do things, without the need for further visualization or research, it is simplicity to direct victory 阿彌陀佛是萬德洪名, 以名可德, 罄無不盡。故即以執持名號而為正行, 不必更渉觀想參究等行, 至簡易至直捷也” (Ouyi Zhixu 1934, p. 371b).

The novel Journey to the West, which was completed in the late Ming Dynasty, was also influenced by the trend of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) in the Buddhist field at that time. As the final segment of the Journey to the West stories genre, Journey to the West embodies Buddhist ideas that have evolved from pure reverence for Zen Buddhism in the Yuan Dynasty’s Journey to the West dramas to using Zen as a supplement and aiming for a Pure Land. In her study of the role of Buddhism in Journey to the West, American scholar Francisca Cho Bantly noted, “My focus is on the integration of Buddhist concepts into the structure of the novel itself, especially by its literary techniques” (Cho Bantly 1989, pp. 512–24). He believed that Buddhist thought had an impact on even the novel structure of Journey to the West. Compared with the Buddhist ideas reflected in the literary works of the Journey to the West stories genre before the completion of Journey to the West, the Buddhist ideas in Journey to the West exhibit characteristics of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一).

3.2. The Ultimate Direction of Ming Xin Jian Xing (Find One’s True Self 明心見性) in Journey to the West Is Toward Jian FO Zu 見佛祖

The tenets of Zen philosophy can be deduced from Journey to the West, as in the Ming Dynasty. Manting Guoke 幔亭過客 once said that reading Journey to the West reveals the principles of Zen, so there is no need to “explore the essence of Zen in the Long Zang 探禪蘊於龍藏”3. The core concept of Zen Buddhism, Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性), appears multiple times in Journey to the West, as shown in the following table.

The main idea of Zen Buddhism is to Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性). The “mind” encompasses all phenomena, and if sentient beings avoid defiling themselves, detach themselves from various Fa Xiang (aspects of thing 法相), and become enlightened in their own minds, they can see their own nature, which is no different from the realm of all Buddhas. As shown in

Table 1. Statistics on the occurrence of “find one’s true self” in Journey to the West.

Chapter	Content
Chapter 1	Tranquil extinction naturally changes, as true nature allows. With the same lifespan and solemn body as the heavens, Master Mingxin has experienced numerous tribulations 空寂自然隨變化, 真如本性任為之。 與天同壽莊嚴體, 歷劫明心大法師.
Chapter 2	But five hundred years later, when thunder strikes you, you need to be clear mind and avoid it in advance 但到了五百年後, 天降雷灾打你, 須要明心見性, 預先躲避.
Chapter 8	The Great Sage found one’s true self, and converted to Buddhism 那大聖見性明心歸佛教.
Chapter 8	Zen mind shines brightly on the moon of thousand rivers, true emotions encompass thousands of miles of sky 禪心朗照千江月, 真性情涵萬裏天.
Chapter 11	Your Majesty, you find one’s true self and must remember it 陛下明心見性, 是必記了.
Chapter 12	If find one’s true self, one can understand Buddha Dharma, if see the nature one can transmit the wise Buddhist doctrines 明心解養人天法, 見效能傳智慧燈.
Chapter 23	Seeing the nature and returning home 見性明心返故鄉.
Chapter 50	Frequently sweeps one’s mind, dust is carefully removed……. The candle of nature must be picky, Freely breath Cao Xi’s thoughts 心地頻頻掃, 塵情細細除……性燭須挑剔, 曹溪任呼吸.
Chapter 91	Zen nature was disrupted by laziness, and bright mind was deceived in times of danger 懶散無拘禪性亂, 灾危有分道心蒙.
Chapter 98	Finding one’s true self, and meeting the Amitabha Buddha, one will fly up to heaven upon completion of one’s work and practice 見性明心參佛祖, 功完行滿即飛升.

, Journey to the West describes the great monk Subhuti 須菩提, the eminent monk Sanzang, and the protector Sun Wukong as embodying the principle of Ming Xin Jian Xing 明心見性. The perception of Bodhi Prajnaparamita is possessed by everyone, but it is contaminated by dust and deluded by external objects and cannot be consciously realized. If the opportunity arises and one can follow the Great Virtue Path, one can achieve enlightenment and see their own nature. American scholar Andrew Hui once said, “I argue that the final chapters of Xiyou ji should be read as an extended allegorical commentary on the Heart Sütra” (Hui 2015, pp. 1–28). In Chapter 32 of Journey to the West, Sun Wukong 孫悟空 articulates his understanding of the ideas in the Heart Sutra through his words: “Do you remember the words in Monk Wuchao’s Heart Sutra, There is no impediment, is no terror, and one leaves distorted dream-thinking far behind 心無掛礙; 無掛礙, 方無恐怖, 遠離顛倒夢想?” He continues, “It is only to sweep away the dirt from the mind and cleanse the dust from the ears. Without suffering, it is difficult to be a superior person” (C. Wu 1980, p. 383). The phrase “the mind is unobstructed” means “cleaning away the dirt in the mind 掃除心上垢”: that is, “understanding the mind 明心” is the only way to “see nature 見性”. The Platform Sutra states, “Good and Wise Advisors! The wisdom of Bodhi Prajnaparamita is inherent in human beings, but it is only due to inner confusion and cannot be self-realized. It is necessary to be demonstrated by Good and Wise Advisors, and guide them to see the nature 善知識！菩提般若之智, 世人本自有之, 只緣心迷, 不能自悟, 須假大善知識, 示導見性” (Chen and Shang 2007a, p. 151). In the eighth chapter of Journey to the West, after describing the Buddha’s teachings, it is said that the “Zen mind shines brightly on the moon of thousand rivers, true emotions encompass thousands of miles of sky 禪心朗照千江月, 真性情涵萬裏天”. After listening to the Dharma, their minds become as clear as the moon, and they see the “true nature 真性”, which is one with all phenomena of heaven and Earth. It is precisely through the guidance of “Good and Wise Advisors” that the Platform Sutra states that one can achieve Ming Xin Jian Xing 明心見性.

Compared with the exploration of the “mind” through keen words 機鋒 in the drama Journey to the West, the exploration of the “mind” in Journey to the West is carried out from the perspective of removing Fen Bie Xin (discriminating mind 分別心). In the eighth chapter of Journey to the West, the Buddha says, “With profound prajna, I observe the three realms. The fundamental nature is ultimately nirvana, Similar to the nature of empty space, devoid of anything. To subdue the disobedient monkey is a matter beyond ordinary understanding. This marks the beginning of birth and death, and such is the nature of dharma 我以甚深般若, 遍觀三界。 根本性原, 畢竟寂滅。同虛空相, 一無所有。 殄伏乖猴, 是事莫識, 名生死始, 法相如是”. This passage summarizes and utilizes Buddhist scriptures. Drawing from the The Later Part of the Mahaparinirvana-Sutra 大般涅槃經後分, it is written that “With profound prajna, I observe the three realms, all six paths of rebirth, the mountains and seas, and the earth, where life is contained. The fundamental nature of these three realms is detached and ultimately nirvana, akin to the nature of empty space. Such is the nature of dharma. Those who understand this are called ‘those who have transcended the world’. Those who do not understand this are at the beginning of birth and death. All of you in the assembly should sever ignorance and extinguish the beginning of birth and death 我以甚深般若, 遍觀三界, 一切六道, 諸山大海, 大地含生。 如是三界, 根本性離, 畢竟寂滅, 同虛空相……法相如是, 其知是者, 名出世人, 是事不知, 名生死始。汝等大衆, 應斷無明, 滅生死始” (The Later Part of the Mahaparinirvana-Sutra 1934, p. 904b). By comparing it to the original text of the The Later Part of the Mahaparinirvana-Sutra, we can understand the meaning of this passage in Journey to the West. The Buddha, with great wisdom, observes Yu Jie (the realm of desire 欲界), Se Jie (the realm of form 色界), and Wu Se Jie (the realm of formlessness 無色界). He sees that the essence of all phenomena is extinction, the essence of all forms is emptiness, and everything is emptiness. The distinction between life and death imparts a sense of separation, which is the beginning of attachment and desire. In Journey to the West, the understanding of Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性) is to remove the sense of separation in order to perceive Nirvana.

The Lankavatara Sutra states that “All dharmata are like this, The world perceived by ordinary people is actually a separate realm of their own minds, a kind of illusion and confusion. Our ability to distinguish and the realm we have separated are both illusory 一切諸法性皆如是, 惟是自心分別境界, 凡夫迷惑不能解了, 無有能見, 亦無所見, 無有能說, 亦無所說” (Lai 2010, p. 10). Yongming Yanshou’s 永明延壽Zong Jing Lu 宗鏡錄 also states that “Since all things are originally mind only, there are truly no distinctions 以一切法, 本來唯心, 實無分別” (Y. Sik 2017, p. 34). We should recognize the emptiness of nature, eliminate distinctions, not dwell on all dharmas, and reach a state of unbinding. All dharmas are like this. In the eighth chapter of Journey to the West, there is a rhyme praising the Buddha as “the number one in the West, the king of the formless Dharma sect 西方稱第一, 無相法門王”. The Platform Sutra: Dinghui Pin states, “Good and Wise Advisors! In my Dharma, I have established the sect, with mindfulness as the purpose, formlessness as the body, and no dwelling as the foundation 善知識！我此法門, 從上以來, 先立無念為宗, 無相為體, 無住為本” (Chen and Shang 2007a, p. 188). Wu Xiang 无相 is an important method of meditation, representing detachment from form and not dwelling on the illusory form. If one can separate from the form, then the Dharma body is pure. In Journey to the West, it is said that the Buddha is the king of the formless Dharma sect, which means being detached from all forms of existence and non-existence, separating the mind, and seeing the pure and unobstructed Buddha’s true mind. Essentially, it is an interpretation of Ming Xin Jian Xing 明心見性.

However, the concept of Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性) in Journey to the West differs from the Zen philosophy of Jian Zi Xing (seeing one’s own nature 見自性). The Platform Sutra: Fu Zhu Pin states, “I have a Buddha in my heart, and the Buddha is the true Buddha. If I have no Buddha’s heart, where can I seek truth from Buddha? Do not doubt that your own mind is a Buddha 我心自有佛, 自佛是真佛。自若無佛心, 何處求真佛？汝等自心是佛, 更莫狐疑” (Chen and Shang 2007a, p. 295). The ultimate goal of Zen Buddhism’s Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性) is to see one’s own nature 見自性, which is Buddha nature 佛性, and achieve complete cultivation. In Chapter 98 of Journey to the West, it is said that “finding one’s true self, and meeting the Amitabha Buddha, one will fly up to heaven upon completion of one’s work and practice 見性明心參佛祖, 功完行滿即飛升” (C. Wu 1980, p. 1179). The journey undertaken by Tang Monk and his disciples to obtain Buddhist scriptures is a process of spiritual cultivation. Through arduous cultivation, they achieve the goal of Ming Xin Jian Xing 明心見性. However, in the context of Journey to the West, Ming Xin (understanding the mind 明心) is not the way to Jian Xing (see nature 見性), and Jian Xing (see nature 見性) is not the result of Ming Xin (understanding the mind 明心). The two are parallel paths of cultivation. The ultimate goal of understanding the mind is not merely to see one’s own nature but to experience arduous cultivation and reach the Western Pure Land to meet Amitabha Buddha. That is, it is not enough to fully see one’s own nature. Only by meeting the Amitabha Buddha of the Western Pure Land can one complete their cultivation. The Buddha is the “Shakyamuni Amitabha Buddha 釋迦牟尼阿彌陀佛” who resides in the Western Paradise world in the novel. Therefore, within this story’s structure and narrative framework, Journey to the West theoretically completed the transition from the Zen school’s Jian Zi Xing (seeing one’s own nature 見自性) to the Pure Land school’s Jian Fo Zu (meeting Amitabha Buddha 見佛祖).

3.3. Ji Xin Ji Fo (The Mind Is the Buddha 即心即佛) and the Buddha in Journey to the West Is Amitabha Buddha in the Western Pure Land

The opening of the 14th Chapter of Journey to the West states that “The Buddha is the mind and the mind is the Buddha, the mind and Buddha are always important things. If you know no thing and no mind, then you are like the Dharmakāya Buddha. The Dharmakāya of Buddha has no appearance, a round light that encompasses all things. The formless body is the true body, and the formless form is the real form 佛即心兮心即佛, 心佛從來皆要物。若知無物又無心, 便是真如法身佛。法身佛, 沒模樣, 一顆圓光涵萬象。無體之體即真體, 無相之相即實相……” (C. Wu 1980, p. 163). The first sentence points out that “the mind is the Buddha”, indicating that, if sentient beings can fully comprehend the concept of “having nothing and no mind 无物无心”, they can achieve the true Dharmakāya 法身. The Dharmakāya represents the eternal and innate true nature that Buddha has attained through long-term practice and thorough enlightenment. The Dharmakāya is formless, spreading throughout everything like emptiness. It is the essence of Buddhism and the true nature of sentient beings. In the poem, it is said that “the Dharmakaya Buddha has no form, but a round light encompasses all things”. The essence of Buddhism is to be formless and empty, without coming or going, without differences or similarities, and with neither differentiation nor duality.

This poem in Journey to the West is an adaptation of Zhang Boduan’s 張伯端 (983–1082) poem from the Song Dynasty, titled Ji Xin Shi Fo Song 即心是佛頌. Zhang Boduan was the founder of the Southern School of Taoism, revered as the “Ziyang Zhen Ren 紫陽真人” and able to comprehend Buddhism and Zen. The original poem states, “The Buddha is the mind, and the mind is the Buddha, the mind and Buddha have always been a delusion. If one knows that there is no Buddha and no mind, then they are truly like the Dharmakāya of Buddha. The Dharmakāya of Buddha has no appearance, and a round light encompasses all things. The formless body is the true body, and the formless form is the real form 佛即心兮心即佛, 心佛從來皆妄物。 若知無佛複無心, 始是真如法身佛。 法身佛, 沒模樣, 一顆圓光含萬象。無體之體即真體, 無相之相即實相……”(B. Zhang 2010, p. 597). Zhang Boduan’s poem directly pointed out that both the mind and the Buddha are illusory and cannot be relied upon. If one realizes the state of “no Buddha, no mind, and no dwelling”, they will understand that the mind is the Buddha and the body is the Dharmakāya Buddha. This is a continuation of Huineng’s 惠能 view that one’s nature is the Buddha.

The biggest change in Journey to the West is the replacement of Zhang Boduan’s poem, which states that “The Mind and Buddha are always delusion 心佛從來皆妄物” and “If one knows that there is no Buddha, then there is no mind 若知無佛複無心”, with “The Mind and Buddha are always Important things 心佛從來皆要物” and “If one knows that there is nothing, then there is no mind 若知無物又無心”. In Journey to the West, both the mind and the Buddha are important things, and their significance is listed side by side. In essence, it distinguishes between the self-nature Buddha and the external Buddha and believes that there are Buddhas other than self-nature. Journey to the West replaces Zhang Boduan’s concept of Wu Fo (no Buddha 无佛) with Wu Wu (nothing 无物), which means that things can be without, the mind can be without, but Buddha cannot be without, and there must be a “Buddha”. In this way, there is a significant difference between the concept of Ji Xin Ji Fo (the mind is the Buddha 即心即佛) in Journey to the West and the traditional Zen philosophy of the same concept. In the past, Zen Buddhism referred to Fo Xing (Buddha nature 佛性) as Zi Xing (self-nature 自性). As Lai Yonghai said, “Huineng regards self nature and Buddha as one thing, believing that there is no other Buddha besides self nature. Those who convert to Buddha are those who convert to self nature; without self nature, there is no place to convert to” (Lai 1987, pp. 43–49). The book Journey to the West, completed in the late Ming Dynasty, was influenced by the idea of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). This perspective posits that “Buddha” is not one’s own nature and needs to be sought outside. Therefore, Journey to the West replaced “no Buddha, no mind” with “nothing, no mind” out of faith in other Buddhas outside of one’s own nature and avoiding the expression of Wu Fo (no Buddha 无佛).

Specifically, in Journey to the West, the phrase Ji Xin Ji Fo (the mind is the Buddha 即心即佛) refers to Amitabha Buddha in the Pure Land of the West. In the seventh chapter of Journey to the West, when Buddha first appears, he introduces himself: “I am the venerable Shakyamuni Buddha of the Western Pure Land, the Namo Amitabha” (C. Wu 1980, p. 76). After subduing Sun Wukong, the novel specifically points out that Buddha led Anu 阿儺 and Gaya 迦葉 to return to “the Western Pure Land”. It clearly conveys that Shakyamuni Buddha is equivalent to Amitabha Buddha living in the Western Pure Land. At the same time, although there are scenes in Journey to the West where various Buddhas and Bodhisattvas come to the rescue, such as the Dipamkara Buddha 燃燈古佛, Maitreya Buddha 彌勒佛, Medicine Buddha 藥師佛, Guanyin Bodhisattva 觀音菩薩, Manjusri Bodhisattva 文殊菩薩, Samantabhadra Bodhisattva 普賢菩薩, etc., all lend a helping hand to Tang Monk and his disciples when they are in danger. The novel describes all these Buddhas and Bodhisattvas as being under the command of Shakyamuni Buddha, also known as Amitabha Buddha. Specifically, at the end of the 100th chapter, there is the following summary: “There is Namo Dipamkara Buddha, There is Namo Medicine Liuli Guangwang Buddha. There is Namo Shakyamuni Buddha. Namo past, future, or present Buddha…… Therefore, all Buddhas, may this merit be used to solemnly bless the Pure Land of Buddha…… To live together in the Land of Bliss, and to repay with the body” (C. Wu 1980, p. 1197). This clearly expresses the common goal of all Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, which is the “solemn and pure land” of the Western Pure Land, and the ultimate goal of transmitting scriptures, meditating, and comprehending all methods is to reach the Western Pure Land. On the other hand, the Buddha in the Yuan Dynasty’s drama Journey to the West is only Shakyamuni Buddha 釋迦牟尼佛, not Amitabha Buddha 阿彌陀佛. In the 22nd chapter, Sanzang first sees the Buddha disguised by Hanshan 寒山 and Shide 拾得. The appearance of Hanshan and Shide’s image here may be related to the sentence “Hanshan Manjusri, hiding in the Guoqing Temple; Shide Samantabhadra, looking like a poor 寒山文殊, 避迹國清; 拾得普賢, 狀如貧子” in the Han Shan Shi Ji Xu 寒山诗集序 by Lv Qiuyin 閭丘胤4, the governor of Taizhou in the Tang Dynasty, which refers to Manjusri Bodhisattva and Samantabhadra Bodhisattva assisting Shakyamuni Buddha. In the 24th episode of the drama, the Buddha introduces himself as “The old monk is the fourth honored one of the Bhadrakalpa, I am Shakyamuni Buddha 老僧賢劫第四尊, 釋迦牟尼是也 (J. Wang 1999, p. 498). The Ming Dynasty’s novel Journey to the West contains no mention of linking Shakyamuni with Amitabha Buddha, stating that “venerable Shakyamuni Buddha of the Western Pure Land, the Namo Amitabha”.

The idea that the Buddha is Amitabha Buddha runs throughout the complete narrative system of Journey to the West. For example, in Chapter 98, Tang Monk and his disciples go to the Spirit Mountain, where the Buddha resides. Tang Monk and his disciples are taken over and extradited to the other side of the river by the Namo Buddha of the Light of Ratnadhvaja 南無寶幢光王佛. After Sanzang boards the ship, he sees a corpse floating in the river. Sun Wukong tells him, “Master, don’t be afraid. The corpse is actually you” (C. Wu 1980, p. 1169). This moment signifies that, after achieving the true fruit of cultivation, one should depart from the dust and form, with no place to dwell in the Dharma. The raft and the body—originally an illusion—should both be discarded. This reflects Zen’s realization of one’s own nature, but realizing one’s own nature is not the ultimate goal. It requires the guidance of the Buddha to ascend to the Pure Land of the West and reach the Pure Land of Bliss, which has just been perfected. For example, after Tang Monk and his disciples obtained the true scriptures, they had only eight days to protect the Buddhist scriptures and travel to the East, and then, they had to return to the West to receive the title of Zhantan Merit Buddha 旃檀功德佛. This indicates that the ultimate result of cultivation is to return to the Pure Land of the West. The overall message of Journey to the West is to start with Zen, but Zen is only a way of practice. The ultimate goal is still the Pure Land of the West, completing the transformation of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) through the path of thought and logic.

4. Praise for the Pure Land Cultivation Path in Journey to the West

Although Journey to the West intersperses the understanding of the mind and nature, it downplays the Zen practice of Dun Wu (satori 頓悟) and replaces it with Pure Land practices, such as Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛) and Chi Jie (commandment keeping 持戒). At the same time, the Guanyin belief, closely related to the Western Pure Land, developed from the rescue-type Guanyin belief 救難型觀音信仰 in the Journey to the West stories genre to the Pure Land reincarnation-type Guanyin belief 淨土往生型觀音信仰 in Journey to the West.

4.1. The Promotion of Cheng Ming Nian Fo (Chanting the Name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛) in Journey to the West

In terms of cultivation methods, Journey to the West rarely mentions Dun Wu 頓悟 and instead promotes the cultivation methods of the Pure Land, especially through the repeated emphasis on Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛). The Pure Land sect believes that all sentient beings, regardless of natural intellectual capacity, can go to the Western Pure Land and recite “Amitabha Buddha”. In the Ling Feng Zong Lun 靈峰宗論, Ouyi Zhixu 蕅益智旭 said, “The Pure Land is supreme. where there is no Buddha outside of one’s mind, To chant for the sake of chanting, and one can only contemplate Buddha without any thoughts besides Buddha. At the very moment of practice, one transcends the four statements and one hundred negations, fully immersing oneself. By merely seeing the radiance of Amitabha Buddha’s pore, one sees the immeasurable Buddhas in ten directions; by being born in the Pure Land of Amitabha Buddha, one is born in the pure lands of all Buddhas. This is the supreme path 淨土極則事, 無念外之佛, 為念所念, 無佛外之念, 能念於佛。正下手時, 便不落四句百非, 通身拶入。但見阿彌陀佛一毛孔光, 即見十方無量諸佛; 但生西方極樂一佛國土, 即生十方諸佛淨土, 此是向上一路” (Ouyi Zhixu 1986, p. 604). The Pure Land emphasizes three essential components: faith, vows, and actions信願行. According to Amitabha Buddha’s 18th vow, “faith” means “to believe with Sincere and rejoice in 至心信樂”, “vows” means “to rebirth to our country 欲生我國”, and “action” means “even recite the name of Amitabha Buddha ten times 乃至十念”. Faith, vows, and actions are the ways to practice the Pure Land Dharma.

In Journey to the West, the ultimate goal of Sanzang’s pilgrimage is to promote Mahayana Buddhism and to be reborn in the Western Pure Land. Sanzang firmly believes in this objective. He made a vow before setting out to retrieve the scriptures: “If I don’t reach the Western Heaven, I won’t be able to obtain the true scriptures. Even if I die, I won’t dare to return to our land, and I will fall into eternal perdition in Hell 如不到西天, 不得真經, 即死也不敢回國, 永墮沉淪地獄” (C. Wu 1980, p. 150). Actions include both positive and supportive actions. Positive action specifically refers to reciting “Amitabha Buddha” orally, which is the most important way of practicing in the Pure Land sect. In Journey to the West, there are multiple descriptions of the name and recitation of “Amitabha Buddha”, as shown in the table below.

As shown in

Table 2. Statistics on the occurrence of “Chanting the Name of Amitabha Buddha” in Journey to the West.

Chapter	Content
Chapter 17	Upon hearing this, the monks folded palms and kowtowed, all chanting, “Namo Amitabha Buddha!” 眾僧聞言, 合掌的合掌, 磕頭的磕頭, 都念聲 “南無阿彌陀佛！”
Chapter 19	The Monster knelt down and looked up at the sky as if pounding a pestle, nodding and saying, “Amitabha Buddha, Namo Amitabha……” 那怪撲的跪下, 望空似搗碓的一般, 只管磕頭道: “阿彌陀佛, 南無佛……”
Chapter 49	Everyone is on the shore, burning incense and kowtowing, reciting “Namo Amitabha” 眾人都在岸上, 焚香叩頭, 都念 “南無阿彌陀佛”.
Chapter 49	The holy monk was by the imperial edict to worship Amitabha, and there were many disasters in the distant mountains and rivers 聖僧奉旨拜彌陀, 水遠山遙災難多.
Chapter 56	Sanzang said, “Amitabha Buddha! My garment is made form different families’cloth and needle 三藏道: “阿彌陀佛！貧僧這件衣服, 是東家化布, 西家化針……”
Chapter 65	All because Sanzang worships Amitabha 皆因三藏拜彌陀……
Chapter 87	Today we saw thunder and lightning, so we all knelt down together, with incense burners on our heads and some holding willow branches in their hands, all reciting “Namo Amitabha!Namo Amitabha!” 今日見有雷聲霍閃, 一齊跪下, 頭頂著香爐, 有的手拈著柳枝, 都念“南無阿彌陀佛！南無阿彌陀佛！”

, the recitation of Amitabha Buddha by Sanzang or other believers is described as the most important way to reach the Western Pure Land and is highly valued by the Pure Land sect as Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛). The Pure Land philosophy holds that those who study Buddhism have different natural capacities, with both advantages and disadvantages. If one starts by studying the nature of the mind, those with a dull natural capacity will waste their energy and be unable to comprehend it. It is better to recite Amitabha Buddha without further reference and to recite it repeatedly. Over time, carnal thoughts will become pure, and the impure will become self-clearing. One can fully understand that Amitabha Buddha is my mind, my mind is Amitabha Buddha, Pure Land is dust labor, and dust labor is Pure Land. The description of Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛) in Journey to the West is a major change in the development of literary works such as the Journey to the West stories genre. The Tang Dynasty’s Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳 and the Song Dynasty’s Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua 大唐三藏取經詩話 contain no descriptions of Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛). In the Yuan Dynasty’s Journey to the West drama, it only appeared once. However, in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty’s Journey to the West novel, the appearance of multiple scenes of Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛) is clearly the result of the significant increase in the influence of the Pure Land philosophy in Buddhism during the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, as well as the influence of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一).

4.2. The Completion of the Pure Land Reincarnation-Type Guanyin Faith in Journey to the West

Guanyin Bodhisattva, as one of the “Three Saints of the West 西方三聖”, is a devoted follower of Amitabha Buddha. The belief in Guanyin is closely related to the belief in Amitabha Buddha, “Guanyin is closely connected with Amitabha Buddha as not only Amitabha’s chief attendant but also his successor. Of all the bodhisattvas, only Guanyin carries a small buddha image on his crown in all the statues and paintings. This unique and distinctive iconographic feature indicates their special relationship as that between a monarch and heir apparent or a father and son” (Yü 2020, p. 82). The flourishing of Guanyin belief in China can be traced back to the Guan Shi Yin Pu Sa Pu Men Pin (Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva Pu Men Pin 觀世音菩薩普門品). In the Pu Men Pin, it is said: “If all the countless hundreds of thousands of millions of living being tormented by misery and pain hear of Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva, and with all their hearts invoke his name, Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva will immediately respond to their prayers and set them free 若有無量百千萬億眾生受諸苦惱, 聞是觀世音菩薩, 一心稱名, 觀世音菩薩即時觀其聲音, 皆得解脫”. (Bodhisattva of Avalokitesvara Pumenpin n.d., p. 56c) It describes the general and accessible virtue of Guanyin Bodhisattva, contributing to the widespread dissemination of Guanyin belief and forming a trend of “every household recites Avalokitesvara and every household recites Amitabha Buddha 家家觀世音, 戶戶彌陀佛” (Zhuyun 1998, p. 375). The scholar Li’ Lian has proposed a distinction between “rescue-type Guanyin belief” and “Pure Land reincarnation-type Guanyin belief”. He believed that, after the ancient Indian Guanyin belief was introduced to China, the first accepted type was the rescue-type Guanyin belief. After hundreds of years of development, the Pure Land-type reincarnation-type Guanyin belief was widely accepted5. The belief in Guanyin in the Journey to the West stories genre 西遊故事 experiences a growing out of nothing, from a rescue-type Guanyin belief to a Pure Land reincarnation-type Guanyin belief, which is the result of the increasing influence of the Pure Land Sect in the Ming Dynasty.

In the Da Ci En Si San Zang Fa Shi Zhuan 大慈恩寺三藏法師傳, it is mainly reflected in the Maitreya faith because the Yu Jia Shi Di Lun 瑜伽師地論 is said to be spoken by Maitreya 彌勒. For example, when Xuanzang traveled westward to Guazhou 瓜州, he sought assistance from the statue of Maitreya to pass through Yumen Pass 玉門關, encountering a thief on the way to Ayemuqu Kingdom阿耶穆佉國 along the Jingqie River 殑伽河 and meditating on the Bodhisattva Maitreya to avoid the disaster of being killed. Although there are accounts of Guanyin providing salvation, such as Xuanzang reciting Guanyin Bodhisattva’s name to retreat from harm caused by the barbarians in front of Yumen Pass, such descriptions are rare. In the Da Tang San Zang Qu Jing Shi Hua, it reflects the belief of Vaisravana 毗沙門天王信仰. Although Guanyin Bodhisattva is mentioned, it only appears in “The fourth section Entering Xiangshan Temple 入香山寺第四”: “On the winding journey, you come across a mountain called Xiangshan, which is the place of the Avalokiteshvara-Sahasrabhujalokeshvara and the place where Manjusri Bodhisattva practices 迤邐登程, 遇一座山, 名號‘香山’, 是千手千眼菩薩之地, 又是文殊菩薩修行之所” (Li and Cai 1997, p. 10). Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva vowed to benefit all sentient beings and so grew a thousand hands and eyes, according to the Great Compassionate Heart Dharani Sutra 大悲心陀羅尼經. The Yuan Dynasty’s Journey to the West drama first introduced the belief in Guanyin Bodhisattva, with 24 episodes and 13 episodes featuring scenes of Guanyin Bodhisattva rescuing people. However, in the Journey to the West drama, the main role of Guanyin Bodhisattva is to “save trouble”. After the 20th episode, Xuanzang arrived in India and no longer encountered danger, and Guanyin Bodhisattva did not appear in the remaining one-sixth of the plot. At the end of the drama, Xuanzang went to the Western Heaven to meet with the Buddha, who was accompanied by Manjusri Bodhisattva and Samantabhadra Bodhisattva. The drama Journey to the West concludes with Xuanzang’s participation in the Spiritual Mountain Dharma Assembly 靈山法會: “As long as with a single spark spiritual light, I can instantly leap out of the glass well 但能够靈光一點明, 登時間跳出琉璃井”. (J. Wang 1999, p. 499) It can be seen that, although he went to the Western Heaven, he did not see Amitabha Buddha. It still emphasized the state of Zen enlightenment of Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性), rather than emphasizing the Western Pure Land. Therefore, the Guanyin in the drama only serves as a rescuer on Xuanzang’s journey to retrieve scriptures, rather than a guide to the Western Pure Land. Therefore, the Guanyin belief in the drama Journey to the West is a continuation of the rescue-type Guanyin belief in the Guan Shi Yin Pu Sa Pu Men Pin 觀世音菩薩普門品.

In the Ming Dynasty novel Journey to the West, the status of Guanyin Bodhisattva has become extremely revered, reflecting the pinnacle of China’s Pure Land reincarnation-type Guanyin belief. In contrast, The Guanyin Bodhisattva in the Yuan Dynasty’s Journey to the West drama is only one of the “Ten Great Protectors” who protect the seekers of scriptures and has an equal relationship with other Buddhas. In the novel Journey to the West of the Ming Dynasty, the status of Guanyin Bodhisattva rose sharply and was described as a disciple of Shakyamuni Amitabha Buddha in the Western Pure Land. With great compassion and boundless power, her duty was to assist the Buddha in bringing devout believers to the Western Pure Land.

The Aparimitayur-sutra 無量壽經 clearly describes the position of Guanyin in the Pure Land: “There are two bodhisattvas who are the most revered, and the mighty god shines brightly on three thousand worlds 有二菩薩最尊第一, 威神光明普照三千大千世界”. Ananda Buddha asked “What are the names of those two bodhisattvas阿難問: 彼二菩薩其號雲何？”. The Buddhist said “One is Avalokitesvara, and the other is Mahasthamaprapta佛言: 一名觀世音, 二名大勢至”. (Aparimitayur-sutra n.d., p. 273b). The A Mi Tuo Gu Yin Sheng Wang Jing (Amitabha Drum Sound King’s Dharani Sutra 阿彌陀鼓音聲王陀羅尼經) says “Amitabha Buddha sits in the lotus position, with two bodhisattvas, one Avalokitesvara and the other Mahasthamaprapta. They are two bodhisattvas standing on either side, surrounded by countless bodhisattvas. Among them, if one can firmly believe without doubt, he will surely be reborn in the Kingdom of Amitabha 阿彌陀佛於大寶花結跏趺坐, 有二菩薩, 一名觀世音, 二名大勢至。是二菩薩, 侍立左右, 無數菩薩周匝圍繞。於此眾中, 若能深信無狐疑者, 必得往生阿彌陀國”. (Amitabha Drum Sound King Dharani Scripture n.d., p. 353a) In Journey to the West, Guanyin Bodhisattva is a disciple with great magical power under the seat of “Shakyamuni Amitabha Buddha”, shaped according to the status of Guanyin Bodhisattva described in the Pure Land scriptures.

In the sixth chapter of Journey to the West, Guanyin Bodhisattva made her first appearance, proclaiming herself as the “Great Compassion and Relief for Suffering and Disaster Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva on Mount Luojia in Putuo, South Sea 南海普陀落伽山大慈大悲救苦救難靈感觀世音菩薩” (C. Wu 1980, p. 61). This introduction highlights her “great kindness and compassion 大慈大悲”; In the eighth chapter, the Tathagata Buddha hoped that someone with supernatural power would go to the Eastern Land to search for someone to seek scriptures. Guanyin Bodhisattva took the initiative to receive the order: “I am willing to go to the Eastern Land to search for someone to seek scriptures”. (C. Wu 1980, p. 85) This description highlights her “supernatural power 有法力”, and she is a disciple of the Buddha. The following is a comprehensive description of Guanyin Bodhisattva’s pure Dharmakaya, solemn appearance, and search for voices to save suffering, with countless responses and compassion for all sentient beings, which is very in line with the Ming Dynasty’s Guanyin belief of “pure land reincarnation-type”, As Li Lian said, “This form of belief should be classified as part of the Amitabha Buddha belief system, as it is not the main form of the Guanyin practice. However, due to the widespread dissemination of Amitabha Buddha and the Pure Land belief in China, Guanyin’s ability and willingness to lead sentient beings to the Pure Land of Bliss are also well-known to all believers, making the Pure Land reincarnation-type of Guanyin belief widely popular and an important aspect of the Guanyin practice” (L. Li 2008, p. 428). More importantly, Guanyin Bodhisattva in Journey to the West fully took on the responsibility of leading Tang Monk and his disciples to the Western Pure Land. She transforms into a seeker of scriptures, guiding Sanzang to fulfill his vow of never reaching the Western Heaven and forever descending into eternal perdition in hell. In the end, she helped Tang Monk and his disciples to the Western Pure Land and achieved success, evolving from the rescue-type Guanyin belief in the drama Journey to the West to the Pure Land reincarnation-type Guanyin belief.

5. Conclusions

In summary, the author believes that, in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty, through its promotion by the Zen masters Yunqi Zhuhong and Ouyi Zhixu, Buddhism completed the transformation to Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一). Against this backdrop, the Buddhist ideas in the late-Ming novel Journey to the West also showed the characteristics of Chan Jing He Yi 禪淨合一. In Journey to the West, there are multiple instances of Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性) and Ji Xin Ji Fo (the mind is the Buddha 即心即佛), but they are completely different from the Zen philosophy of mind and nature reflected in the Yuan Dynasty’s Journey to the West drama. The concept of Ming Xin Jian Xing (find one’s true self 明心見性) mentioned in Journey to the West does not refer to one’s own nature 自性. The phrase Ji Xin Ji Fo (the mind is the Buddha 即心即佛) refers to Amitabha Buddha in the Western Pure Land. Seeing one’s own nature is not sufficient to achieve the goal of cultivation. It is necessary to ascend to the Western Pure Land and meet Amitabha Buddha in order to complete the perfect cultivation. In terms of self-cultivation practice, in contrast to various literary works in the Journey to the West stories genre before it was completed, Journey to the West includes a substantial number of depictions of Pure Land cultivation methods, such as Cheng Ming Nian Fo (chanting the name of Amitabha Buddha 稱名念佛) and Chi Jie (commandment keeping 持戒). It has also evolved from the Maitreya faith, Vaisravana King faith, and the rescue-type Guanyin faith in previous texts to the Pure Land reincarnation-type Guanyin faith. The Wei Xin Jing Tu (mind-only Pure Land 唯心淨土) advocated by Zen Buddhism in the mid-to-late Ming Dynasty was replaced by the Xi Fang Jing Tu (Western Pure Land 西方淨土) advocated by the Pure Land sect, and Zen thought was integrated and returned to the Pure Land. This change had a profound impact on Journey to the West. Although Journey to the West more or less continues with the Yogacara, Zen, and other ideas from the previous Journey to the West stories genre, Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) runs throughout it and is the ultimate goal of Buddhist thought in Journey to the West.

The mid-to-late Ming Dynasty saw the growing influence of the Pure Land on the relationship between Zen and purification. This period not only formed a change in the field of Buddhist thought known as Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) but also had a great impact on social life. In his book Song Chuang Meng Yu 松窗梦语 from the Ming Dynasty’s Wanli era, Zhang Han 张瀚 (1513–1595) recorded that “People are very devout toward Buddhism, they make offerings to monks, decorate statues, and even if the poor do not hesitate to donate money, the wealthy will pray for repentance, recite scriptures, Even a large amount of money can dedicate immediately 若事佛之謹, 則齋供僧徒, 裝塑神像, 雖貧者不吝捐金, 而富室祈禱懺悔, 誦經說法, 即千百金可以立致” (Han Zhang 1997, p. 139). This observation indicates that, at that time, folk Buddhist beliefs were very popular but mainly manifested in the emphasis on simple and practical Pure Land methods, such as building temples and statues, fasting and chanting Amitabha Buddha, burning incense, and making wishes to be reborn in the Western Pure Land after death, with less attention to the Zen philosophy of self-nature in Zen Buddhism. In Jin Ping Mei 金瓶梅, although it is written that the nun gave a speech on the deeds of the Sixth Patriarch of Zen Buddhism to the women of the Ximen family, it is only a popular Buddhist story and does not explore the principles of Zen Buddhism. In the later period of the Ming Dynasty, most of the depictions of Buddhist beliefs were about practicing the Pure Land method. For example, in Chapter 15 of Xing Shi Heng Yan 醒世恒言, “Hao Da Qing Yi Hen Yuan Yang Tao 赫大卿遺恨鴛鴦縧”, Lu Shi 陸氏 “led a three years old child named Xi’er 喜兒 to study and recite Amitabha Buddhism in a clean room” (M. Feng 1995, p. 290). In Chapter 58 of Jin Ping Mei, Li Ping’er 李瓶兒 presented 1500 volumes of the Fo Ding Xin Tuo Luo Jing 佛頂心陀羅經 to ensure the safety of Guan Ge 官哥6. All of these reflect that the people practiced the convenient method of chanting Amitabha Buddha, holding precepts, and being reborn in the Pure Land, just as Chinese scholars concluded when studying the Buddhist beliefs of the people in Jiangnan 江南 during the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty: “Basically, we can still see the content of Buddhist believers’ wishes and desires for Buddhism and generosity at that time: to cultivate the afterlife, seek liberation, and be reborn in the Pure Land of the West” (Hongwei Zhang 2016, pp. 111–26). The influence of Chan Jing He Yi (integration of Zen and Pure Land Buddhism 禪淨合一) on Buddhist concepts in the novels of the late Ming Dynasty is the result of the interaction between Buddhism and literature.