Science Translation in Late Qing Christian Periodicals and the Disciplinary Transformation of Chinese Lixue

Abstract

Missionary periodicals during the late Qing dynasty played a crucial role in introducing, translating, and systematizing Western scientific knowledge, thereby facilitating China’s transition from the traditional epistemic frameworks of “Lixue” to modern academic disciplines. Situated within a framework of knowledge transmission and disciplinary formation mediated by Chinese Christianity, this study moves beyond prior scholarship that mainly focused on individual missionary figures such as Young John Allen or specific publications like The Church News. Instead, it adopts a broader perspective, employing an integrated quantitative and qualitative analysis to examine their collective role in scientific modernization and disciplinization. The research argues that translational activities in these publications fundamentally reshaped China’s knowledge landscape. It specifically traces the semantic evolution of “Gezhi” (格致) and the transformation of “Lixue” from a moral-philosophical tradition toward the modern natural sciences. By reconstructing this process, the paper illuminates how Chinese Christianity contributed to knowledge structuring and academic modernization, highlighting its significant impact on contemporary disciplines such as Translation Studies. The findings underscore the multifaceted interactions among religious media, knowledge production, and social change.

1. Introduction

The late Qing dynasty marked a critical juncture characterized by external pressures and internal transformations. Following the Opium Wars, the establishment of the Treaty Port system facilitated increased contact with the West, thereby creating a conduit for the missionaries to spread Western scientific knowledge. Over the years, their missionary activities and influence in China have attracted sustained scholarly attention from successive generations of researchers. (Wylie 1867; Latourette 1929; K.-C. Liu 1966; Fairbank 1985; L. Wang 1997; Xianqing Zhang 1998; Wu 2000; Xiping Zhang 2009). Their scholarship has addressed various dimensions of missionary endeavors, including their economic activities (Sun 2007; Zhou 2023), language acquisition (Bai and Du 2012; Y. Wang 2015; Xie and Shi 2017; He 2023), translation methodologies (Yin 2005; J. Wang 2014; Yan 2014), the spread of Christian art (Cheng 2014, pp. 205–12), and shaping Chinese folk culture (Yang and Li 2013; Zhao 2024). However, a significant gap remains in critically engaging with the deeper, more nuanced ramifications of missionaries’ dissemination of Western scientific knowledge in late Qing society. While previous scholarship has examined the dissemination of scientific knowledge through late Qing newspapers published by missionaries, a comprehensive and in-depth analysis of the epistemological transmission within these newspapers from a disciplinary perspective remains insufficiently explored. This study is interdisciplinary in that it covers the disciplines of religions, press and publications, natural science history, and translation history. It not only studies the relations between Late Qing Periodicals and science transformation, relations between Christianity and Confucianism, but also the relations between publication and introduction and translation. Through discourse decoding and textual analysis, it aims to investigate the relation between Chinese traditional Lixue and science knowledge in Late Qing Christian Periodicals, the development from Lixue to the modern science discipline, and the role Christian periodicals play in the process.

The large-scale translation of this foreign knowledge not only provided new epistemological frameworks but also generated intellectual tensions with established Chinese cultural traditions, setting the stage for cultural restructuring in the ensuing decades. Amid this wave, traditional Chinese conceptions of “Lixue” faced unprecedented challenges. Missionary efforts in periodical publication and knowledge translation introduced modern Western disciplinary frameworks into China, fundamentally reshaping the academic landscape and expanding scholarly categories beyond their classical boundaries. Consequently, “Lixue” gradually freed itself from the traditional cognitive framework of “Neo-Confucianism” (新儒学) and evolved into the modern disciplinary concept of “Natural Sciences.” Just as Wang Guowei 王国维 published an article in the The Universal Progressive Journal (广益丛报), in which he divided the diverse disciplines into five major categories, “…This proposal would consolidate the College of Classical Studies into the College of Liberal Arts, establishing five categories: 1. Classical Studies; 2. Science; 3. History; 4. Chinese Literature; and 5. Foreign Literature. The Foreign Literature discipline could initially include English, German, and French, with additional languages to be added later. The subjects to be taught within each discipline are as follows: 1. Subjects in Classical Studies… 2. Subjects in Science: (1). Introduction to Philosophy (2). History of Chinese Philosophy (3). History of Indian Philosophy (4). History of Western Philosophy (5). Psychology (6). Ethics (7). Logic (8). Aesthetics (9). Sociology (10). Pedagogy (11). Foreign Literature…” (G. Wang 1906). It clearly demonstrates the evolution and development process of modern Chinese disciplines under the impact of Western scientific knowledge.

In this process, the missionaries who arrived in China played a critical role. While their primary mission was to disseminate the Christian gospel, they simultaneously made advances in translating and transmitting Western scientific knowledge, thereby directly facilitating the disciplinary transformation of “Lixue”. Among these missionaries, Young John Allen, an American missionary, and his periodical, The Church News, deserve particular attention. The scientific content systematically translated and published in The Church News served as a key catalyst for reconfiguring the epistemological foundations of traditional Chinese “Lixue” Through the medium of The Church News and under the sustained influence of the Western disciplinary paradigm, the indigenous Chinese worldview—deeply rooted in Neo-Confucianism—underwent a fundamental epistemic shift, enabling the modern, positivist-oriented disciplinary system to be progressively assimilated and institutionalized.

In light of this, the study takes late Qing Christian periodicals as its research object, exploring the role of Christian periodicals that contributed to the disciplinary transformation of “Lixue” in modern China. Employing a methodology combining quantitative and qualitative descriptive approaches, this research draws all empirical evidence from 972 issues published over The Church News’s 33-year run, which was later renamed The Global Magazine and then renamed The Review of the Times in 1889. The author has systematically collected articles by missionaries translating and introducing Western science, conducted detailed quantitative analyses of the data, and visualized the findings through charts to provide readers with more intuitive and clear insights. This study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. How did “Lixue” break free from the traditional theoretical framework of Neo-Confucianism to develop into the modern disciplinary concept of the “natural sciences”? 2. What influence and promoting role did missionaries play in this process? (using the missionary Young John Allen and The Church News as a case study) 3. What insights does the disciplinarization of “Lixue” and the establishment of modern scientific disciplines offer for the construction of the contemporary discipline of Translation Studies?

2. The Historical Development of Lixue

The modern disciplinary “Lixue” (Natural Sciences) was gradually established during the great wave of Western Learning in the late Qing period, through missionaries’ extensive translation and introduction of Western natural scientific knowledge, and in the process of learning, borrowing, and even transplanting modern Western academicization and disciplinary norms. In light of this, this section divides the development of Chinese Lixue into three stages to clarify its historical trajectory.

2.1. Pre-Qin “Lixue”

The concept of li 理 (principle) originated in the pre-Qin period and has been continually developing theoretically ever since.1

As early as the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods 春秋战国时期, various philosophical schools interpreted “Li” (理) from multiple perspectives. Mencius 孟子, representative of the Confucian school, proposed that “Li is righteousness” Li Ji Yi 理即义 (Gaozi, 告子), interpreting “Li” through benevolence and righteousness based on the inherent goodness of human nature, linking “Li” with moral norms. The Daoist representative Zhuangzi 庄子 viewed “Li” as natural law, believing that all things in heaven and earth possess “natural principle” (自然之理). The Mohist Mozi 墨子proposed to “distinguish similarities and differences, examine the principle of names and realities” Ming Tongyi Zhichu, Cha Mingshi Zhili 明同异之处, 察名实之理 (Mozi: Xiaoqu, 墨子小取), emphasizing the exploration of the inner logic of “Li”. As time progressed, Lixue continued to develop. During the Wei-Jin and North–South Dynasties 魏晋南北朝, “Li” primarily centered on Xuanxue 玄学 (Wei-Jin Metaphysics 魏晋玄学), whose core was exploring philosophical questions concerning the origin and essence of the universe and the meaning of human existence. Through Xuanxue speculation, “Li “was endowed with richer connotations and profound philosophical significance. During the Sui-Tang period 隋唐时期, Buddhism achieved unprecedented development, and people began interpreting “Li “through “emptiness” (Kong 空).

2.2. Lixue from the Tang to Qing Dynasties

From the Mid-Tang to the Song 中唐至宋朝dynasty, Lixue underwent a profound philosophical transformation in response to intellectual challenges posed by Buddhism and Daoism, as well as shifting sociopolitical conditions. During this period, Lixue progressively moved away from the Han-era focus on textual exegesis toward metaphysical explorations of cosmic principles and the inner moral mind. Thinkers of the Northern Song 北宋, such as Zhou Dunyi 周敦颐 and the Cheng brothers (Cheng Hao and Cheng Yi 程颢和程颐), laid a theoretical foundation centered on the concept of “Heavenly Principle” (Tianli 天理). By the Southern Song 南宋era, the Lixue tradition had reached systematic maturity, particularly through the efforts of Zhu Xi 朱熹, who systematized and brought Lixue to its mature form—Neo-Confucianism. His work prompted a fundamental reconceptualization of its core ideas. Under Zhu Xi’s systematization, “principle” (Li 理) evolved from referring to patterns in particular things or Confucian ethical norms into a universal ontological foundation governing nature, society, and human life—epitomized in the methodological framework of “Investigation of things and extension of knowledge” (Gewu Zhizhi 格物致知). (Collected Works of Master Zhu朱子文集). This theoretical breakthrough marked the completion of Lixue’s internal logical framework and foreshadowed its subsequent evolution into an academic discipline.

During the early Ming dynasty 明朝, Neo-Confucianism gradually gained elevated status. Due to imperial endorsement and the influence of early Ming scholars who advocated Neo-Confucianism, the concepts of Neo-Confucianism became deeply rooted in popular consciousness. By the late Ming period, Neo-Confucianism had gradually become rigid. From the late Ming to the early Qing period 明末清初, Neo-Confucianism faced another challenge. Many scholars, learning from the lessons of the Ming dynasty’s collapse, criticize Neo-Confucianism as empty in content and lacking practical application value. An intellectual trend resisting Neo-Confucianism pervaded. Zeng Guofan 曾国藩 once stated, “The works of Northern-Song thinkers such as Zhou Dunyi 周敦颐, the Cheng brothers 程氏兄弟, Zhang Zai 张载 and Zhu Xi 朱熹 were greatly reviled by the world. Those who occasionally touched upon their teachings were ridiculed and insulted by all”. As a devoted adherent of Neo-Confucianism, he resolved to vindicate Neo-Confucianism. He extensively absorbed the Han Learning 汉学and various miscellaneous studies, even including Western learning, revitalizing late Qing Neo-Confucianism from its rigid and declining state, leading to a Neo-Confucian revival in the late Qing period.

2.3. “Japanese Wave” in Introduction of Western Science

During the late Qing period, aside from the translation and introduction of missionary publications, neighboring Japan also emerged as another crucial external source for the dissemination of Western scientific knowledge.

Japanese scholars of the Meiji era (1868–1912), such as those involved in the Meirokusha intellectual society, had debated and standardized translations for a vast array of Western terms (Reynolds 1993). As Masini Federico demonstrates in The Formation of Modern Chinese Lexicon and its Evolution toward a National Language, over 70% of modern Chinese terms for the humanities, social sciences, and natural sciences were coined in Japan using Sino-characters and then re-imported into China. This provided Chinese translators and reformers with a ready-made, coherent linguistic framework, without which the rapid modernization of Chinese education and science would have been immensely more difficult (Masini 1993).

Japanese intellectuals had already performed the crucial work of “translating modernity”. They had created a vast lexicon of neologisms using Chinese characters to represent Western scientific concepts (e.g., 科學 kagaku for “science”, 哲學 tetsugaku for “philosophy”, 物理 butsuri for “physics”). For Chinese students, these terms were intuitively understandable, making Japanese textbooks and scholarly works an incredibly efficient conduit for Western knowledge.

Japanese scholars produced a wealth of middle-level textbooks and encyclopedic compendia that were ideal for the nascent Chinese education system. Works like the series of Japanese science textbooks translated by Fan Diji and others provided a structured curriculum. Furthermore, comprehensive works like the Taihei shinsho (a Japanese encyclopedia of sciences) were translated and served as key reference works.

In the 1895–1911 period, Japanese scholars made three monumental contributions: they created the modern Chinese scientific lexicon, provided systematized pedagogical materials, and filtered Western knowledge through a modernizing, East Asian lens.

The seminal bibliographic work by Sanetō Keishū in A History of Chinese Students in Japan (Chūgokujin Nihon ryūgakushi) provides a foundational count. He estimates that from 1896 to 1937, approximately 2600 Japanese books were translated into Chinese. The peak period was between 1902 and 1908 (Sanetō 1960).

In the same period, Japanese scholars reconstructed the concept of Lixue within the framework of Western learning, paralleling the efforts of missionaries in translation and introduction. Together, these dual forces laid the preliminary foundation for China’s modern disciplinary system of the sciences.

2.4. Late Qing Missionaries’ Introduction of Western Science

Initially, missionaries’ activities primarily focused on spreading the Christian gospel, with genuine scientific knowledge remaining quite impoverished. After the Opium War, more foreigners were allowed to establish schools and spread religion, ushering the late Qing transmission of Western learning into a new phase. During this period, numerous scientific works emerged. Many books concerning Western scientific knowledge were introduced to China through collaborative translation between missionaries and Chinese intellectuals. After the Second Opium War, the translation of Western learning exhibited characteristics of scale and diversification. From the third year of Xianfeng (1853) to the third year of Xuantong (1911) 咸丰三年至宣统三年, a total of 468 Western natural science works were translated and introduced to China. These natural science books can be categorized into six major types, see

Table 1. Translation Volumes by Field, 1853–1911.

Category	Quantity
General Works and Miscellanea	44 volumes
Astronomy and Meteorology	12 volumes
Mathematics	164 volumes
Physics and Chemistry	98 volumes
Natural History	92 volumes
Geography	58 volumes

and Figure 1:

Meanwhile, the Western missionaries had played a significant role in translating Western sources in general, through their effort in translating the Bible and religious texts. Their contribution also had a profound effect on the translation and transmission of scientific sources. In the book Bible in Modern China: The Literary and Intellectual Impact, the effects of Bible translation on China’s modern transformation went beyond the translation and literary sphere, to the intellectual reception phase, and further to the appropriation phase. The unforeseen consequences the biblical text can lead to involving China’s languages and vocabulary evolution, frequent topic appropriation, and new ideas conveyed by Bible translation (Eber 2024). These coincided with the New Culture movement and the literary renaissance of May Fourth. These paved the way for science translation in the Late Qing Christian periodicals and the transformation of Chinese Lixue. Both Christian and non-Christian, Western theologians and Chinese theologians, under the impact of May Fourth and New Culture, were concerned with the role of Christian theology in national salvation, with motifs and themes incorporated into literary works, with the demands of nationalism (Elman 2005). Late Qing Christian periodicals, especially The Church News, reflected similar concerns and trends in the sphere of science and the transformation of Chinese Lixue. Scientific sources translation, as a part of Western sources in general, followed similar patterns and regularity, shared similar characteristics with biblical sources and social science sources translation (L. H. Liu 1995).

3. Late Qing Christian Periodicals’ Translation and Introduction of Western Scientific Knowledge

3.1. A Representative Christian Periodical Case Study: Young John Allen’s the Church News

In the wave of Western Learning during the late Qing period, missionaries played a vital role, even serving as the lead role for most of this period. Most of the missionaries were well-educated and possessed knowledge of modern science, assuming the role of science disseminators during their evangelical work. Through establishing periodicals and translating works, they extensively introduced Western natural scientific knowledge in astronomy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, and other fields into China, injecting entirely new content into China’s traditional Lixue system.

Among these efforts, Young John Allen’s The Church News stands as an important and representative case among the numerous Christian periodicals. The magazine not only reported current affairs but also systematically introduced Western scientific technology and educational frameworks, becoming a crucial window through which late Qing intellectuals understood the West.2

The following is a visualization chart depicting the developmental trajectory of The Church News (The Review of the Times) by this paper, see Figure 2.

This paper divides the development of The Church News (The Review of the Times) into four stages: the initial founding period, renaming and sustained development, the first suspension and hiatus period, and resumption leading to final cessation.3

3.2. The Semantic Evolution of “Gezhi” and Its Impact on Traditional Neo-Confucianism Concepts: Gezhi and Lixue

The core of Neo-Confucianism lies in establishing “Heavenly Principle” as the cosmic ontology, emphasizing the innate and unquestionable nature of ethical order. The Church News, through translating Western natural scientific knowledge and introducing positivist thinking, dismantled the metaphysical foundations of traditional Neo-Confucianism. The Church News published an article titled “Gezhi Lunlve” 格致论略 (General Discourse on Gezhi) in its “Gezhi Jinwen”格致近闻 (Recent News on Gezhi) column in Volume 201, August 1872. The English column title was “Science”. Clearly, “Gezhi” was here established as the translation for “Science,” marking the initiation of modern science in Chinese (Feng and Nie 2019, pp. 111–17). The article began with the classical Chinese concept from Daxue 大学 (The Great Learning) of “Investigation of things and extension of knowledge” (Gewu Zhizhi 格物致知) in the first place, but immediately infused “Gezhi” with the modern Western meaning of Science: “Western learning derives its strength primarily from Gezhi. Its essential principle is nothing more than experiential observation of phenomena and investigating things to exhaust their principles.” In this article, the author expounds on the essential nature of science, its interactive relationship with production technology, and emphasizes the role of epistemology as the foundation of science.

Accordingly, the semantic evolution of the term “Gewu Zhizhi” is traced that it first appeared in the Liji: Daxue 礼记:大学 (Book of Rites:The Great Learning ): “The extension of knowledge lies in the investigation of things; when things are investigated, knowledge is extended.” During the late Ming period, scholars such as Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi 徐光启translated Western natural sciences as “investigating things and exhausting principles” (Gewu Qiongli 格物穷理). Euclid’s Elements was translated as a “Gezhi zhishu” 格致之书 (Book of Gezhi ), causing “Gezhi” to gradually evolve into a concept equivalent to Western mathematics, astronomy, and mechanics. In the modern era, some scientists abandoned the ethical significance of “Gezhi”, and the term gradually evolved into a synonym for natural sciences.

In 1874, Young John Allen published “Ji Shanghai Chuangshe Gezhi Shuyuan” 记上海创设格致书院 (Record of Establishing the Shanghai Polytechnic Institute), in which he wrote: “The scholars of mechanics in our Western countries always investigate things to exhaust their principles, seeking truth from facts. From astronomy and geography down to the minutest blade of grass or tree, all are examined with serious scrutiny and dare not be neglected” (Allen 1874, pp. 27–28). At this point, Gezhi studies encompassed the concepts of astronomy and geography.

In 1902, the “Qinding Xuetang Zhangcheng” 钦定学堂章程 (Imperially Ordained School Regulations) designated “Gezhi Science” as one of eight divisions in the specialized universities, subdividing it into astronomy, physics, advanced mathematics, chemistry, and other subjects. Thus, Gezhi had become disciplinarized. In October, Shenbao 申报 (Shun Pao) published “Daxue Chengcai” 大学程材 (University Curriculum Standards), (Shenbao 1902) detailing that year’s university entrance examination subjects and admission requirements: “The first session of the Administrative Studies Academy tests scholarly essays, political strategy essays, mathematics essays, and English essays. The Normal Academy tests essays on moral cultivation and ethical principles, twelve questions on Chinese and foreign history, six mathematical questions, and English essays. The second session of the Administrative Studies Academy tests geography strategy essays, diplomatic strategy essays, and one physics strategy essay. The Normal Academy tests essays on educational principles, twelve questions on Chinese and foreign geography, six questions on physics and chemistry, and Japanese essays. All subjects tested above are divided into two levels of difficulty. The advanced level is for accomplished students; the elementary level is for beginners. After admission, students are divided into classes according to their proficiency levels. Those who have not studied English or Japanese essays may omit them. For strategy questions in mathematics and physics, complete mastery is not required; only clear writing and logical presentation are assessed. For questions on history, geography, mathematics, physics, and chemistry, brief written answers demonstrating the ability to extrapolate from examples are sufficient, without requiring comprehensive coverage.” Items such as “one physics strategy essay” and “six questions on physics and chemistry” clearly incorporated physics, chemistry, and other “Gezhi studies” content into official examinations. This demonstrates that Gezhi studies had achieved legitimate status on par with traditional subjects like classics, history, and politics at the official level, formally becoming mandatory content for national talent selection examinations.

In the same year, Liang Qichao 梁启超 published “GezhiXue Yange Kaolve” 格致学沿革考略 (A Brief Study of the Evolution of Gezhi Studies), in which he traced its history: “The types of learning are extremely numerous, but can be divided into two categories. First, metaphysical studies, namely political science, economics, sociology, and the like. Second, physical studies, namely physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology, anatomy, zoology, botany, and other fields. In common usage today, all that belongs to physical studies is called Gezhi” (Liang 1902, p. 25). He further clarified the disciplinary scope of “Gezhi studies,” and the disciplinarization process of natural sciences continued to deepen.

In 1903, William Edward Macklin and Li Yushu 李玉书 jointly published “Gezhi Jinhua Lun” 格致进化论 (The Theory of Evolution in Gezhi Studies), arguing that “Those who discuss the earth approach it differently—in mathematics and measurement, they merely discuss the earth’s shape, surface, and volume. Economics discusses the profits derived and the materials produced from it. Political science discusses to whom the land should rightfully belong as permanent property, while philosophy goes further to trace origins and assert that the earth belongs to the Creator God” (Macklin and Li 1903, p. 34). The scope of study for each subject within Gezhi studies was further clarified.

According to the Academic Degrees Granted and Talent Training Disciplines Catalog jointly issued by the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council and the Ministry of Education, there is an authoritative division of disciplines in modern Chinese higher education (referred to as the “Discipline Catalog”). According to the Discipline Catalog, the following first-level disciplines and their corresponding second-level disciplines are established under the category of Lixue (Science, Code 07), which specifically includes Astronomy, Physics, Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics and other second-level disciplines. (State Council Academic Degrees Committee & Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China 2018).

Several representative disciplines are selected and analyzed to elucidate the process of the disciplinization of Lixue, with attention given to its broader impact on modern education and the academic system in the following section.

3.2.1. The Deconstructive Role of Astronomy and Physics

According to the Discipline Catalog, among the many disciplines under the category of Lixue, Astronomy and Physics are two important subjects.

The Church News has published a great deal of related articles, which have helped popularize the concepts of Astronomy and Physics. Young John Allen published numerous articles in The Church News, such as “Gezhi Xinxue” 格致新学 (New Learning in Science), “Lun Rishi” 论日蚀 (On Solar Eclipses), and “Huixing Lun”彗星论 (Discourse on Comets ), introducing theories including Copernican heliocentrism, Newtonian mechanics, and Darwinian evolution, which challenged the cosmological view of “Heaven-Human Correspondence” (Tianren Ganying 天人感应). For instance, in 1892, The Review of the Times published “Gezhi Xinxue” 格致新学 (New Learning in Science), written by William Muirhead, a translated exposition introducing modern Western astronomical discoveries. “Indeed, the earnest aspirations of youth have stimulated recent astronomical achievements. There are scholars who say astronomy is the most venerable of all sciences, yet it renews itself in youth through spectroscopic instruments. Previously used merely to examine the composition of visible stars, they now also measure invisible movements and penetrate the mysteries of historical records” (Muirhead 1892, pp. 22–25).

Written in classical Chinese, this article systematically expounds three major advances in contemporary astronomy: observational technology, theoretical understanding, and cosmological concepts. “Moreover, in the heavens, photographs of the Pleiades reveal that the suns of this sphere are not rare assemblages; stellar nebulae photographs show the connection of various stars within one sphere. During observation, all deduce that stars are merely points, where the substance of stellar nebulae separates, aggregates, and contracts to form new suns. This is also seen in photographs of the Orion Nebula, further enhanced by spectroscopic instruments.” As evident from the text, the combined use of “spectroscopic instruments” (spectroscopes) and “photographic methods” (photography) elevated astronomy from the “naked eye-telescope” era to the “spectroscopy-photography” era, representing technological progress in astronomical observation.

“The regular movements of celestial bodies have gained new understanding. The light substance of nebulae, seen spreading around their volumes, also transforms among the stars into clear indicators: the initial creation of solar systems, and the grand thesis on stellar life—their origin, growth, decline, and renewal—advancing forward, enabling interpretation of their meaning in the near future.” Muirhead pointed out that “stellar gas” (nebulae) were not static luminous bodies but vast masses of matter undergoing evolution; the “solar assembly” (galaxy) was likewise formed through gradual condensation of similar nebulae, representing contemporary understanding of cosmic structure as astronomy developed.

Furthermore, the text states: “For example, when I examine the image of the Western star called Sirius, I see its water vapor lines constantly shifting toward the blue end of the spectrum; from this, I can definitely deduce that this star is approaching us. Calculating its approach velocity yields approximately twenty-one li per second. After calculating Earth’s orbital movement, measurements can be taken at different observatories and times; the final calculation differs by no more than three li or one minute... Moreover, knowing the distance separating us from Venus and how their mutual movements affect this distance, I can predict that at a given time Venus will approach Earth at 22.2 Li per s. When I determine this speed using spectroscopic instruments, it shows 23.4 Li per s, with the spectroscopic error being only 0.4 Li out of three, approximately 800 yards.”

Muirhead provided empirical data—Sirius at approximately twenty-one li per second, Venus at 23.4 Li per s—verifying Earth’s revolution and planetary orbital theory. In summary, Muirhead’s “New Learning in Science,” following the sequence of “instrument-method-principle-example,” not only demonstrated the empirical aspect of new Western astronomical knowledge but also transformed “Gezhi” from a general concept of investigating things and exhausting principles into a modern scientific paradigm with experimental methods, mathematical tools, and disciplinary boundaries.

The Church News also introduced extensive foundational knowledge in physics, such as “Yiguang Zhibing” 以光治病 (Treating Disease with Light), “Meijing Shengdian” 煤井生电 (Electricity Generation in Coal Mines), “Xinzao Cini” 新造磁泥 (Newly Made Magnetic Clay), and “Mumian Reqi Huiguang” 木面热气回光 (Heat and Light Reflection from Wood Surfaces), bringing late Qing Chinese basic concepts in optics, electricity, magnetism, and thermodynamics. Additionally, The Review of the Times published biographies of these scientists, including “Waya GeGezhi Zhilve” 瓦雅各格致志略 (Biography of James Watt in Science), “Duoerdun Huaxue Zhilve” 多尔敦化学志略 (Biography of Dalton in Chemistry), and “Falate Zhilve” 法拉特志略 (Biography of Faraday), among others. From the perspective of popularizing natural science knowledge, The Review of the Times made significant contributions. The translation and introduction of this scientific knowledge led late Qing scholars like Kang Youwei 康有为 to reexamine the essence of “Li” 理 (Principle), connecting “Heavenly Principle” with “Natural laws”. Kang Youwei studied astronomy in his later years, his thoughts profoundly influenced by the modern Western scientific movement. Some scholars argue that Kang Youwei’s later Neo-Confucian thought embodied a kind of “scientific universalism” (Gong 2024, pp. 10–21) Figure 3.

3.2.2. The Positivist Impact of Biology and Chemistry

As can be seen from the Discipline Catalog, Biology and Chemistry are also the two most important disciplines under the category of Lixue.

The Church News also frequently published articles on related topics, which promoted the dissemination of concepts in Biology and Chemistry. The Review of the Times once published articles such as “Lun Weishengwu” 论微生物 (On Microorganisms) and “Shengming Dalü” 生命大律 (The Great Laws of Life), introducing basic biological knowledge to Chinese readers. In addition, chemistry is closely linked to medicine. In 1904, Young J. Allen and Fan Yi co-authored the article “Gezhi Faming Leizheng: Mingyao Yuanliu” 格致发明类征: 名药源流 (Investigation of Scientific Inventions: The Origin of Famous Medicines), which stated: “After chemical examination, it has been confirmed as a key medicine for treating malaria and febrile diseases.” The text explicitly indicated that the identification of medicinal properties was not based solely on empirical tradition but was verified through chemical experimentation. Furthermore, the article provided extensive and precise data on the production and export volume of cinchona, the source of this medicine: “In 1902, India’s output reached 27,136 pounds... totaling 18,010,787 pounds, which can yield over 861,000 pounds of quinine.” With such detailed statistics, the article traced the raw material sources and production volume of the medicine, reflecting the empirical approach of Western medicine in verifying drug scale and efficacy through quantitative data (Allen and Van 1904, pp. 53–54). Additionally, articles like “Xiyi Huichao” 西医汇抄 (Compilation of Western Medicine) and “Puhou Xiyi” 葡后习医 (The Portuguese Queen Studies Medicine), along with introductions to new medicines like aspirin, emphasized scientific methods and the spirit of empiricism, forming a stark contrast with traditional Chinese medicine’s primarily experience-based approach. Through translating and introducing Western biology, anatomy, and cell theory—all empirical knowledge—The Review of the Times questions the explanatory power of “Qi Theory” (Qilun 气论) regarding the origin of life in Neo-Confucianism. Young John Allen first used extensive space to introduce the basic conditions of modern Western scientific knowledge and achievements, then supplemented these with illustrations, enabling late Qing Chinese to absorb scientific knowledge more intuitively and rapidly. This practice directly challenged the ethical constraints of Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucian principle that “the body, hair, and skin are received from one’s parents” (Shenti Fafu Shou Zhi Fumu 身体发肤受之父母). This spirit of scientific empiricism injected empiricist methodology into Neo-Confucianism, prompting late Qing scholars to gradually shift from “investigating things and exhausting principles” to experimental verification.

3.2.3. The Introduction of Scientific Classification Systems

In the late Qing period, missionary periodicals not only introduced knowledge of the modern sciences but also imported their systematic classifications, thereby accelerating the disciplinization of Lixue.

The Church News organized content according to disciplinary divisions, regularly publishing scientific knowledge and featuring specialized columns such as “Gezhi Jinwen” 格致近闻 (Recent News on Gezhi), “Gewu Rumen” 格物入门 (Introduction to Natural Science), and “Zhineng Conghua” 智能丛话 (Collected Discourses on Science). For example, “Zhineng Conghua” 智能丛话 (Collected Discourses on Science) column published a total of 161 popular science articles, including “Celiang Shenhai” 测量深海 (Measuring the Deep Sea), “Dusha Weiwu” 毒杀微物 (Killing Microorganisms), “Xinzao Cini” 新造磁泥 (Creating New Magnetic Clay), “Juzhi Xidi” 橘汁洗地 (Cleaning Floors with Orange Juice), “Funei Sheying” 腹内摄影 (Photography Inside the Abdomen), “Dianqi Zhi Liyong” 电气之利用 (The Utilization of Electricity), and “Pingan Zhayao Zhi Zhiqiu” 平安炸药之致求 (The Quest for Safe Explosives), among others. All these articles aimed to explain scientific knowledge to readers. In “Celiang Shenhai” 测量深海 (Measuring the Deep Sea), the original text states: “Recent measurements of the ocean floor have reached depths of 28,000 to 30,000 feet. At such profound depths, the temperature drops to 32 degrees below freezing, and the water pressure is extremely high: for every 32 feet deeper, the pressure increases by 15 pounds per square inch. Moreover, the deep sea is completely dark, with no light, so there are no plants; the fish have no eyes and simply devour one another when they encounter each other. However, three species of fish still have eyes, and all of them can generate light from their bodies, like fireflies in autumn fields.” (Allen and Van 1905, p. 56).

The article begins by citing “recent measurements of the ocean floor,” utilizing the latest survey data—depths ranging from 28,000 to 30,000 feet, temperatures 32 degrees below freezing, and pressures of 15 pounds per square inch—to introduce new discoveries about Western deep-sea exploration at the time to readers, with the goal of disseminating scientific knowledge. Furthermore, the text consistently provides specific figures such as “28,000 feet,” “30,000 feet,” “32 degrees below freezing,” and “pressure increases by 15 pounds for every additional 32 feet of depth,” exemplifying the characteristic use of quantitative evidence in popular science articles to explain phenomena. Finally, by noting that “three species of fish still have eyes” and that they can generate light from their bodies, immediately employs the analogy “like fireflies in autumn fields”—a natural phenomenon familiar to readers—making the unfamiliar knowledge of the deep sea instantly relatable and tangible. This illustrates the comparative technique and the method of explaining the distant through the familiar, commonly used in popular science writing.

Over several decades, The Review of the Times systematically introduced fundamental knowledge in mathematics, physics, chemistry, geography, and other disciplines, laying the foundation for establishing modern academic disciplines in China. The Western disciplines transmitted to China at that time were primarily concentrated in the natural sciences, encompassing modern mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, physiology, and psychology (most of which belonged to the category of “Sciences of Investigation” or Gezhi zhuxue 格致之学). The formation of modern Chinese disciplines began precisely with the introduction of these Western natural sciences. The Review of the Times’ translation and introduction of disciplinary classification methods broke the knowledge distribution model of the “Six Arts” (Liuyi 六艺) in traditional Neo-Confucianism, not only promoting the transformation of “Lixue” from a comprehensive philosophical system to modern specialized disciplines but also facilitating the modernization of Chinese educational forms and content.

In brief, the formation of modern scientific disciplines in China originated from the Western learning movement of the late Qing period and was gradually established through the process of translating and introducing Western scientific knowledge. In this process, Christian missionaries played a crucial role, with Young John Allen’s contributions as representative.

4. Impact of Late Qing Christian Periodicals’ Translation of Western Scientific Knowledge

During the late Qing period, the replacement of “Gezhi” with “Science” (Kexue 科学) in China represented not merely a terminological change but marked a fundamental transformation of China’s knowledge system from traditional Neo-Confucian paradigms to modern scientific paradigms. This cognitive shift manifested in three dimensions:

4.1. The Disciplinarization of Natural Sciences

Traditional “Gezhi” originated from the ethicized cognitive framework of “investigating things and extending knowledge”. Zhu Xi annotated in his Sishu Zhangju Jizhu 四书章句集注 (Collected Commentaries on the Four Books): “Ge (格) means to reach; Wu (Things 物) refers to affairs,” emphasizing the pursuit of moral perfection through exhausting the principles of things (Zhu 1983). Modern “science,” however, turned toward the experimental cognitive model of “Nature under constraint and vexed” advocated by Francis Bacon, emphasizing the acquisition of objective knowledge through systematic experimentation to reveal the essence of natural science. This proposition freed Chinese cognitive activities from traditional conceptual constraints, enabling Neo-Confucianism to begin integrating with natural sciences. Starting from the 4th issue, “Yichao Gewu Rumen Huaxue Diyizhang Lun Wuzhi Yuanzhi” 择抄格物入门化学第一章论物之原质 (Selected Excerpts from Introduction to Natural Philosophy: Chemistry Chapter One—On the Original Qualities of Matter) was published, followed by 40 consecutive issues featuring “Jiechao Gewu Huaxue Rumen” 接抄格物入门化学 (Continued Excerpts from Introduction to Natural Philosophy: Chemistry). This novel content enabled Chinese scholars to recognize the crucial role of natural sciences in understanding and transforming the world, prompting Neo-Confucian researchers to focus on natural scientific development and pushing the discipline toward greater scientification and systematization.

4.2. Modernization of Attitudes

Articles published in The Church News that introduced and translated scientific knowledge enabled Chinese intellectuals to understand the reasons behind Western nations’ strength, thereby inspiring their reflections on political innovation and social transformation, changing traditional modes of thinking and value orientations, and promoting the gradual transformation from traditional feudal thought to modern concepts of democracy and rule of law. Periodicals established by missionaries not only translated and introduced scientific knowledge but also disseminated Western information on modern civilization, education, history, politics, and social conditions. One of the most significant contributions was introducing the modern social concept of “public welfare” (Gongyi 公益) to the people of late Qing China. For example, in 1907, The Church News published an article by Wang Bingkun (王炳堃) titled “The Situation of Public Welfare in Countries with Two Religions” (Erjiao Zhiguo Gongyi Duogua 二教之国公益多寡). The article stated: “Chinese people have cast the sage’s doctrine of selflessness behind their minds, while Yang Zi (杨子)’s4 teaching of self-interest occupies their hearts. In all matters, they know only themselves and not others. Thus, although the people are numerous, they are scattered like grains of sand.” The author was the first to use the metaphor of scattered sand to describe the national mentality, highlighting that the root cause of “scarce public welfare” was the selfishness embodied in “Yangzi’s self-interest” (Yangzi Weiwo 杨子为我) and that Confucian moral education had failed to address this inherent weakness in human nature. In this text, the author no longer employs traditional categories such as “righteousness and profit” (Yili义利) or “benevolent government” (Renzheng 仁政). Instead, they introduce quantifiable indicators such as “freedom,” “number of charitable institutions,” and “donation amounts” to measure the effectiveness of “public welfare.” By replacing the traditional “righteousness and profit” framework with the binary categories of “public welfare and selfishness,” the author promotes the formation of modern Chinese concepts of “public welfare” and reflects the emergence of modern public consciousness. (B. Wang 1907, pp. 30–34) Besides, taking The Church News as an example, its serialization of “Chronicles of the Sino-Japanese War” during the First Sino-Japanese War, along with publications on current affairs and major domestic and foreign political decrees, powerfully promoted the development of the reform movement.

4.3. Modernization of Education

Through the translation and dissemination of substantial scientific knowledge in Christian periodicals, the disciplinary framework of modern science in China was gradually restructured and refined, ultimately contributing to the modernization of education. In 1875, The Church News published “Daqingguo: Lun Xixue Sheke” 大清国:论西学设科 (The Great Qing Empire: On Establishing Western Learning Subjects) in which Young John Allen advocated abolishing the rigid essay examination system and adding subjects such as astronomy, mathematics, natural science and translation, treating them with equal importance as formal disciplines. As stated in this article, late Qing intellectuals regarded new academic disciplines as an opportunity to transform weakness into strength, while criticizing the traditional imperial examination system, which “competed in pursuing literary embellishment,” as “the root cause of China’s accumulated weakness.” This discursive shift generated public support for the eventual establishment of practical education under the “Guimao Educational System” 癸卯学制in 1904. The article repeatedly emphasized that “mathematics, natural science, and translation are universal learning for all under Heaven, not Western learning, redefining knowledge previously labeled as “barbarian techniques” as universally practical learning. This redefinition weakened conservative accusations of “using Chinese ways to transform barbarians” and facilitated the smooth integration of modern subjects such as mathematics, physics, and foreign languages into official schools.

More forward-looking was the article’s call for the establishment of new disciplines in mathematics, natural science, and translation. It also proposed further testing through policy questions, debates, poetry, and classical prose to evaluate talents and literary accomplishments. This approach resonated with Liang Qichao’s later advocacy for “cultivating people’s qualifications to serve as national talent”. In other words, examination subjects needed to change not only in content but also in assessment methods. Thirty years later, the Guimao Educational System mandated that higher schools establish four mutually reinforcing disciplines (classical studies, mathematics, Chinese and foreign history, and translation studies) and introduced capstone project–style examinations, an approach almost structurally identical to the comprehensive assessment advocated by The Church News. From this perspective, the 1875 editorial was not an isolated outcry but rather provided an operational roadmap for the modernization of education in the late Qing period (Allen 1875, pp. 16–19). Subsequently, The Church News continuously published articles on school revitalization and educational reform, such as American missionary Calvin Mateer’s “Zhenxing Xuexiaolun” 振兴学校论 (On Revitalizing Schools) in Volume 14, Issue 655 (1881), and American missionary Gilbert Reid’s “Chuangshe Xuexiaoyi” 创设学校议 (Proposal for Establishing Schools) in Issue 84 (1896), all advocating educational system reform to the Qing government. Intellectuals like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao also acquired advanced Western educational theories through this publication. Large numbers of Chinese educators reflected upon and reformed traditional educational models, advancing China’s educational modernization process.

4.4. Limitations of the Christian Periodicals

Nevertheless, while acknowledging the significant contributions of late-Qing missionary periodicals in introducing Western knowledge and catalyzing the disciplinary transformation of Lixue, it is essential to critically examine their inherent limitation. These publications were not entirely objective vehicles of knowledge; their communicative activities were deeply embedded within specific cultural and power structures. An analysis of its limitations will be undertaken from these three perspectives: thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.

4.4.1. Thesis

Christian periodicals in the late Qing served as important vehicles for transmitting Western religious and scientific ideas. As instruments of missionary work, they aimed to spread Christian doctrine and promote new moral and epistemological frameworks, presenting Christianity as a system capable of addressing China’s perceived spiritual, social and cultural shortcomings.

4.4.2. Antithesis

However, these periodicals faced limitations when interacting with Chinese cultural and intellectual traditions. Tensions between Christian universalism and indigenous thought emerge. Some scientific and general knowledge introduced was filtered through a missionary lens. Many subjects that conflicted with Christian doctrine were omitted or altered. These publications also tended to promote Western knowledge as superior, marginalizing Chinese philosophical and moral traditions. Their circulation remained largely urban and elite, limiting their national impact.

4.4.3. Synthesis

The encounter between Western missionary publications and Chinese intellectual traditions eventually spurred Chinese scholars to re-evaluate their own heritage and to selectively appropriate Western knowledge on their own terms. This led to movements such as the Self-Strengthening Movement and later the New Culture Movement.

5. Conclusions

The preceding sections have explored the late Qing Western learning movement and the formation of modern scientific disciplines in China under its influence. It is necessary to clarify the relationship between academic knowledge and modern disciplinary categories to illuminate the significance of the transformation of traditional Chinese “Lixue” as a discipline and the formation of modern scientific academic categories in China.

China’s modern academic system was primarily formed and evolved under Western academic influence. Translation Studies must clarify its own disciplinary boundaries and establish a distinctive knowledge and discourse system. As Young John Allen wrote in Wenxue Xingguo Ce Xu, translation should serve as a “particularly beneficial the nation and be regarded as a crucial undertaking”. He advised the imperial court to “diligently seek new methods, with the establishment of schools as the primary task,” thereby elevating translation activities from mere “book translation” (Yishu译书) to “systematic translation and institutionalization” (Yizhi译制)—that is, through the systematic introduction and translation of Western learning, attention should be paid to the training of translators to accomplish the construction of a national knowledge system and disciplinary development (Allen and Cai 1896, pp. 10–15). It argues that the extensive translation activities undertaken through missionary publications were instrumental in reshaping China’s knowledge landscape, not only in books and magazines but also through emerging media forms. A key focus is placed on the semantic evolution of “Gezhi” and the resulting disciplinary transformation of “Lixue”, which gradually shifted from a moral-philosophical tradition toward the paradigm of modern natural sciences.

It was precisely the Western learning movement during the late Qing, when Christian missionaries continuously translated and disseminated Western scientific knowledge, that the academic discipline of “Lixue” was significantly enriched and expanded. This process ultimately broke free from the traditional theoretical framework of Zhu Xi’s Neo-Confucianism, leading to the formation of academic categories with modern significance.

As William Edward Macklin stated in “Peigen Xinxue Gezhi Lun” 培根新学格致论 (Bacon’s New Learning on Natural Philosophy), “The learning of natural philosophy has two approaches: one involves raising fundamentals to deduce particulars, the other involves tracing effects back to their sources. Raising fundamentals to deduce particulars is the learning of ‘inner reasoning’, while tracing effects back to their sources is the learning of ‘outer reasoning’.” “Inner reasoning” (Neizhou Zhixue 内瘤之学) is now translated as “deduction,” while “outer reasoning” (Waizhou Zhixue 外瘤之学) is now translated as “induction.” William’s translation represents the earliest attempt in the late Qing period to define the concepts of “deduction–induction” using paired Chinese terminology, providing indigenous etymological sources for the later development of dual-track “theoretical-empirical” curricula in translated academic disciplines (Macklin and Li 1901, pp. 24–36). During the late Qing Western learning movement, Christian missionaries extensively translated and introduced Western scientific knowledge through establishing periodicals and other channels, challenging traditional Chinese concepts of “Lixue”. Meanwhile, concepts of modern Western academic disciplines were continuously introduced to China, catalyzing the transformation of “Lixue” from the Neo-Confucianism ethical framework to modern disciplinary paradigms, with American missionary Young John Allen making particularly outstanding contributions. Although these missionaries initially aimed to spread the gospel, the pathway they constructed through periodical media—translating science, reconstructing knowledge, and establishing disciplines—holds profound implications for contemporary Chinese Translation Studies discipline construction: translation’s role extends far beyond simply transmitting knowledge to become a crucial force driving educational transformation. Scientific knowledge flow and transformation play a crucial role in reshaping disciplinary systems, with translation at the core of this process. Cross-cultural knowledge translation disseminated through late Qing newspapers and periodicals was not merely a linguistic conversion but also a catalyst for transforming disciplinary paradigms.