Treatise of the Golden Lion: An Exploration of the Doctrine of the Infinite Dependent Arising of Dharmadhātu

Abstract

Among the texts of Huayan Buddhism, the study of the Treatise of the Golden Lion remains at the level of literal translation. Neither the core doctrines of the Treatise nor the original contexts of its delivery have received much scholarly attention. This paper first contextualizes the preaching background of the Treatise and its relevant doctrines, and then conducts a section-by-section explanation of the Treatise with special consideration given to the intention of Fazang and his manner of preaching. The doctrines of the ten mysterious gates and the six characteristics, along with the manifestation of the distinctive teaching of one vehicle, constitute the key components of the preaching. They are the representation and revelation of the doctrine of the infinite dependent arising of dharmadhātu.

1. Introduction

In the Tang dynasty (618–907), the Jinshizi zhang (Treatise of the Golden Lion, hereafter referred to as Treatise) 金獅子章 was introduced to Wu Zetian 武則天 (Empress Wu, 624–705) by Fazang 法藏 (643–712) when he attempted to explain the most profound teachings of the Huayan school 華嚴宗 (Flower Garland school).1 The time when Fazang preached the Treatise is recorded in the Fozu tongji 佛祖統紀 (Chronicle of the Buddhas and the Patriarchs):

In the tenth month of the second year of Shengli 聖歷二年 (699), Fazang received the edict in the lecture hall of the Foshouji Si 佛授記寺. The capital city was shaken. The next day, Fazang used the metaphor of the golden lion to explain the profound teachings of the Dafang guangfo huayanjing 大方廣佛華嚴經 (Avataṃsaka Sūtra, hereafter referred to as AS)2 in Changsheng Palace 長生殿.3

The primary focus of this paper is to elicit the doctrine of the infinite4 dependent arising of dharmadhātu 無盡法界緣起 (hereafter referred to as DIDCD) from the Treatise. The DIDCD—the core teaching of the Huayan school—originates from the central thrust and doctrines of the AS. While the concept of the DIDCD has different emphases in many commentaries, the content is basically the same. In short, that is:

In the dharmadhātu, all things (dharmas) that arise from the combination of infinite causes and conditions are interdependent, interpenetrating, and unobstructed. Therefore, it is also called the infinite dependent arising, or the infinite dependent arising of dharmadhātu.5

The DIDCD, which is the unique understanding of dependent arising of Huayan school, is not only related to the understanding of dependent arising from different Buddhist schools but also embraces various forms of analysis within a compatible system through its unique classification of the five teachings. In the Huayan school, the DIDCD is primarily available in the Fajieguanmen 法界觀門 (The Approach to the Visualization of the Dharma Realm T1883(45), hereafter referred to as FJGM) by Dushun 杜順 (557–640) and developed in the Huayan yicheng shixuanmen 華嚴一乘十玄門 (Ten Mysterious Gates of the One Vehicle of Huayan T1868(45), hereafter referred to as HYSXM) by Zhiyan 智儼 (602–668). In the High Tang period (650–755), no matter the theory of the DIDCD, the five teachings, or the entire Huayan school system, had matured due to the significant contribution of Fazang, the third patriarch and systematizer of the Huayan school.

In the Huayan school, the DIDCD is available in most of the commentaries. However, they treat the teachings of Huayan from different aspects, with much repetition (Wei 2008, p. 128). Along with that, until the retranslation of the AS, there was no commentary that gave a concise explanation of the core teachings of the Huayan school. In the second year of Shengli 聖歷二年 (699), it was at the request of Empress Wu that Fazang interpreted these doctrines at Changsheng Palace.

The core source of this paper is the Treatise, however, the original text no longer exists. The editions circulating in Chinese are accessible from the Jinshizizhang yunjianleijie 金師子章雲間類解 (Classical Clouds Interpretation of the Golden Lion Treatise) T1880(45) by Jingyuan 淨源 (1011–1088), and the Huayan jinshizizhang zhu 華嚴經金師子章註 (Commentary on the Golden Lion Treatise of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra) T1881(45), annotated by Chengqian 承遷.6 However, in addition to the original text, these sources are mixed with commentary. Thus, this paper uses the full text of the Treatise that is available in Collation and Explanation of the Treatise of Huayan 華嚴金獅子章校釋 by Fang (2012, pp. 221–400) for direct translation and/or reference.7

The interpretation of DIDCD in the Treatise has not yet attracted much attention from scholars. For instance, Fang (2012) completed a monograph that explored the thoughts of Fazang and the Treatise. It includes four valuable ancient commentaries on the Treatise. Fang preferred a compendium of the commentaries rather than an explanation of the doctrines. Chen (1996) focused on the construction and development of the DIDCD from the thoughts of Huayan masters such as Dushun, Zhiyan, and Fazang. The author provides an excellent opportunity for readers to understand the DIDCD through its historical development. However, Chen’s interpretation of the DIDCD is mainly based on the FJGM by Dushun and the HYSXM by Zhiyan. Jones (2016, p. 130) explains the “infinite regress of dependent conditioning”, however, he quoted Jizang’s 吉藏 (549–623) statement rather than Fazang’s thought. Lin (2016) discussed how Fazang interpreted the teachings of Huayan through infinity 無盡. Lin mainly referred to the Huayan wujiao zhang 華嚴五教章 or 華嚴一乘教義分齊章 (Essay on the Five Teachings of the Huayan T1866(45) hereafter referred to as WJZ) and the Huayanjing tanxuanji 華嚴經探玄記 (Profound Meaning of Huayan T1733(35) hereafter referred to as TXJ) but did not discuss the Treatise. Di (2011, pp. 58–59) claimed that the golden lion metaphor was an illustration of “one is all, and all is one”, 一即一切, 一切即一 but did not further interpret the content of the Treatise. Moreover, Zacchetti (2000) completed an annotated translation of the Treatise in an Italian publication.

Although previous studies discussed the Treatise, no scholar has yet provided a detailed interpretation of its contents in English, especially the DIDCD, from the perspective or intention of Fazang, nor has any author explained in detail the significance of the Treatise on Chinese Buddhism. These issues are the focus of this paper.

The available English translation of the Treatise is primarily based on the literal meaning, without any attempt at an interpretation in terms of the doctrines proclaimed in the text. For instance, Johnson (2020, pp. 120–23) included his translation in the appendix of his publication for reference only, while Chang (1971, pp. 224–30) put his translation in the section on the selected readings of Huayan. Moreover, some online resources include its translation, but it is difficult to identify their initial sources and confirm their authenticity.8 Thus, although such translations are accessible for reference, they make it difficult for readers to understand the doctrines from the standpoint of the Huayan school. Therefore, during the interpretation process, although this paper considers the published translations, it also attempts to retranslate most of the contents/doctrines of the Treatise, combined with the interpretation according to the position of Fazang when necessary.

2. Structure of the Treatise

There are ten chapters in the Treatise, which are divided into four parts for interpretation. The first part (Chapters 1–5) focuses on the metaphor of the golden lion in conjunction with the teachings of different schools to explain the fundamental concept of dependent arising, the emptiness of the matter, and the three natures. The purpose is to provide assumed knowledge to explain the DIDCD. This manner of narration by Fazang can be understood as an indirect explanation of the DIDCD. The second part (Chapter 6) focuses on the five teachings. The purpose is to discuss the differences and connections between other Buddhist schools and the Huayan school. The third part (Chapters 7 and 8) focuses on the ten mysterious gates and the six characteristics. This part constitutes the core element of the Treatise. The ten mysterious gates are used to explain the DIDCD in detail from ten perspectives, while the six characteristics are concisely explained. By explaining the DIDCD through the ten mysterious gates and the six characteristics after introducing the relevant knowledge as a foundation, Fazang ensured that Empress Wu was able to understand the core teachings of Huayan at that stage. The preaching of the DIDCD also reveals the distinctive teaching of one vehicle 一乘別教. The final part (Chapters 9 and 10) focuses on the interpretation of the path toward bodhi and nirvana. It also reflects the ultimate purpose of Fazang’s preaching.

Table 1. Structure of analysis.

Chapters in the Treatise		Sections in This Paper	Contents	Key Analysis
N/A		Section 1 and Section 2	Introduction	Background of preaching. Structure of analysis.
Chapter 1	Part 1	Section 3.1	Dependent arising and absence of own-being	Assumed knowledge for preaching. Indirect explanation of the DIDCD.
Chapter 2		Section 3.2	The emptiness of the form
Chapter 3		Section 3.3	Three natures
Chapter 4		Section 3.4	No characteristics	Transition from other Buddhist schools to Huayan school.
Chapter 5			Non-arising
Chapter 6	Part 2	Section 4	Five teachings	Classification of five teachings.
Chapter 7	Part 3	Section 5	Ten mysterious gates	Direct preaching of the DIDCD.
Chapter 8		Section 6	Six characteristics
N/A		Section 7	Distinctive teaching of one vehicle	Enhances understanding of the DIDCD.
Chapter 9	Part 4	Section 8	Bodhi	Ultimate purpose of preaching.
Chapter 10			Nirvana
N/A		Section 9	Conclusions	Summary of analysis. Importance/influence of the Treatise.

presents the structure of the analysis based on the content of the Treatise.

Although there are ten chapters in the Treatise, and the preaching is of a progressive manner, the focus of the Treatise is the ten mysterious gates (Chapter 7) and the six characteristics (Chapter 8). These two chapters, along with the rest of the Treatise and even the rest of Fazang’s teachings, are the skill means used by Fazang for learners to understand the infinite meaning in the universal sea 剎海. It is also a manifestation of the DIDCD.

3. Assumed Knowledge to Understand the DIDCD (Chapters 1 to 5)

In Changsheng Palace, Fazang did not directly explain the core doctrines of the Huayan school to Empress Wu. Rather, he adopted a step-by-step approach. The first five chapters of the Treatise, with no more than forty Chinese characters per chapter, lay the foundation for further exposition of the DIDCD.

3.1. Principle of Dependent Arising (Chapter 1)

Chapter 1 uses the metaphor of the gold and the lion to illustrate the doctrines of dependent arising and the absence of own-being. At first, Fazang explained the absence of own-being of the gold. He stated the following: “that is to say, the gold has no inherent nature of its own. The characteristic of the lion arises due to the condition of the skilled craft of the craftsman”.9 Then, he concluded that “it is called the dependent arising because of its origin”.10 The origin of the craftsman is the condition of the (crafted) lion.

By explaining the doctrines of dependent arising and the absence of own-being from the standpoint of the Huayan school, Fazang referred to the relevant principles of early Buddhism and the Mādhyamaka school in the initial phase. Fazang did not connect the dharmadhātu with dependent arising at this stage.

The concept of absence of own-being in Mahāyāna Buddhism can be traced back to Nāgārjuna, the founder of the Mādhyamaka school. Nāgārjuna elaborated on the meaning of dependent arising and the absence of own-being in several influential texts, such as the Zhong lun 中論 (Mūlamadhyamakakārikā T1564(30) hereafter referred to as MMK) and the Shiermen lun 十二門論 (Dvādaśanikāya Śāstra T1568(30) hereafter referred to as DS). Fazang made a comment regarding the DS, which is named Shiermenlun zongzhiyiji 十二門論宗致義記 (An Account of the Significance of Dvādaśanikāya Śāstra) T1826(42). It mainly explains his understanding of the Mādhyamaka school, especially the doctrine of dependent arising and related concepts, from the perspective of the Huayan school.

Since the Treatise is primarily an introduction to the Huayan doctrines, there was no need for Fazang to explain the doctrines of early Buddhism and the Mādhyamaka school in detail. The doctrines of dependent arising and the absence of own-being are introduced at the beginning of the Treatise because they are both fundamental to understanding the DIDCD.

3.2. Emptiness of the Form (Chapter 2)

In Chapter 2, Fazang explained the emptiness of the form through the relationship between the gold and the lion. He stated the following: “that is to say, the characteristics of the lion are unreal. Only the gold is real”.11 He further claimed that “It is called the emptiness of the form because the lion does not exist, but the nature of gold is not non-existent”.12 From the perspective of emptiness, Fazang claimed that “There is no self-nature of the emptiness, and the emptiness needs to be revealed by the matter. It is called the emptiness of the form because it does not hinder illusory existence”.13

Compared with the definition of emptiness in early Buddhism and the Mādhyamaka school, Fazang paid attention to the interpretation of the emptiness of the form. The existence of gold was used to illustrate the existence of the form. The intention was to show the illusory nature of the lion and the absence of self-nature of the emptiness. The Mādhyamaka school, especially the early Mādhyamaka school, breaks down the existence from all perspectives, and adopts a negative dialectic to explain the relationship between dependent arising and emptiness. The Huayan school adopts a positive approach to the interpretation of dependent arising and emptiness, and connects the interpretation of these elements to the dharmadhātu.

The particular understanding of the emptiness of the form can be identified in the Treatise. The relationship between the lion and the gold, along with the relationship between emptiness and form, paves the way for a further explanation of the relationship between Li 理 (noumenon) and Shi 事 (phenomena) from Chapter 7 onward. The interpretation of Li and Shi and their relationship is central to the teachings of Huayan school and, in particular, to understanding the DIDCD. Although Fazang did not identify Li and Shi in this chapter, his statement that “the nature of gold is not non-existence”14 is a statement about Shi. The gold is the noumenon of the lion, which is essentially the Shi of the Huayan school.

The first two chapters of the Treatise focus on the dependent arising and emptiness in the context of early Buddhism and the Mādhyamaka school. The contents of the Huayan school are not directly presented by Fazang at this stage as he had considered Empress Wu’s ability to understand the teachings of Huayan. According to Yinshun (1950, p. 1), the MMK is the general theory of Agama. Although this statement is controversial, the definitions of dependent arising and emptiness, as well as the relationship between the two, are explained in detail in the Mādhyamaka school. For instance, the MMK (24.18) states that “what is dependently co-arisen, that is explained to be emptiness. That, being a dependent designation, is itself the middle way”. (Garfield 1995, p. 69). The interpretation from the MMK regarding dependent arising and emptiness is endorsed by many Buddhist schools, including the Huayan school. In the first two chapters, Fazang’s example of the relationship between the gold and the lion is also an alternative expression of this formulation. He did not explain the DIDCD directly, however, he pointed out the relationship between Li (the gold) and Shi (the lion) in the Huayan school through dependent arising and the emptiness of the form. This lays the groundwork for the subsequent explanation of the DIDCD.

3.3. Yogācāra Theory of Three Natures (Chapter 3)

The Yogācāra theory of three natures is the fundamental doctrine of the Yogācāra school. There are detailed explanations of three natures in the Jieshenme jing 解深密經(Saṃdhinirmocana-Sūtra T676(16) hereafter referred to as SS), the She dacheng lun 攝大乘論 (Mahāyānasaṃgraha T1592(31) hereafter referred to as SDCL), and the Chengweishi lun 成唯識論 (Vijñāptimātratāsiddhi T1585(31) hereafter referred to as CWSL). Although the interpretation of the three natures is not entirely consistent between Yogācāra and Huayan due to differences in emphasis, it provides the basis for Fazang’s preaching.

The SS, which is the earliest canon in the Yogācāra school, analyzes the three natures (or three characteristic patterns). It states that all dharmas are threefold: they are “the characteristic pattern of clinging to what is entirely imagined 遍計所執, the characteristic pattern of other-dependency 依它起性, and the characteristic pattern of full perfection 圓成實性”. Keenan (2000, p. 31). There is a similar expression in the SDCL: “there are three natures. They are the nature of interdependency, the nature of imputed (imaginary), and the truly existent nature”.15

The nature of imaginary is related to concept construction. The SS “refers (it) to the establishing of names and symbols for all things and the distinguishing of their essences, whereby they come to be expressed in language”. (Keenan 2000, p. 31). The SDCL defines it as the dual characteristics of subjective and objective that a dharma exhibits. The CWSL also indicates that there is the absence of an existential nature by its very defining characteristic. All the above texts are consistent in their expression of the nature of the imaginary. The nature of the imaginary means that sentient beings subjectively believe that these conceptualized dharmas are real, however, they have no intrinsic existence or nature.

For the nature of interdependency, the SS “refers (it) to the pattern whereby all things arise co-dependently: for if this exists, then that exists, and if this arises, then that arises”. (Keenan 2000, p. 29). This is consistent with the teachings of early Buddhism and the Mādhyamaka school. For the nature of truly existent, the SS (Keenan 2000, p. 31) refers (it) to the universally equal suchness of all things. Bodhisattvas penetrate to this suchness because of their resolute zeal, intelligent focusing, and true reflection. By gradually cultivating this penetration, they reach unsurpassed true awakening and realize perfection.

In contrast to the other two natures, the nature of truly existent was proposed by the Yogācāra school, and is one of the key points that distinguishes the Yogācāra school from others.

Based on the Yogācāra interpretation of the three natures, Fazang offered a similar interpretation in Chapter 3. First, as far as the nature of imaginary is concerned, Fazang’s understanding is largely consistent with the doctrine of the Yogācāra school. Fazang believed that sentient beings have a misunderstanding of the lion and mistakenly “cling to the lion, which has no entity, as real”.16 Moreover, Fazang claimed that “the lion appears to be existing; it is called (the characteristic of) dependency on others”.17 The essence of “appears to be” 似有 in this context implies that there is no real lion, and the existence of the lion depends on the existence of the gold. Moreover, Fazang claimed that “the nature of gold is unchanging, (which means that the gold that makes up the golden lion is unchanging), so it is called the nature of truly existent”.18

In contrast to the absence of own-being in the Mādhyamaka school, Fazang claimed that the nature of the gold is unchanging. The recognition of the unchangeable nature of the gold is his unique interpretation based on the doctrines of the Huayan school. It lays the foundation for the interpretation of the relationship between noumenon (Li) and phenomena (Shi)19 in the ten mysterious gates 十玄門 (Chapter 7).

3.4. No Characteristics and Non-Arising (Chapters 4 and 5)

In Chapter 4, Fazang claimed that “the unchangeable nature of the gold can embrace the (characteristics of the) lion entirely. Other than the unchangeable nature of the gold, the lion is designated without characteristics. So, it is called the no characteristics”.20 In Chapter 5, Fazang claimed that “when looking at the appearance of the lion, there are only the characteristics of the gold. There is nothing other than the gold. Although the lion may arise and perish, the nature of the gold never increases or decreases. That is why it is called non-arising”.21 Furthermore, Fazang introduced the absence of non-being 無自性 of the gold. Compared with the doctrine of dependent arising, he highlighted the characteristics of the gold. The arising and ceasing of the golden lion are based on the characteristics of the gold. As a result, the golden lion exhibits dependent arising. However, he adopted a different style in his analysis of the characteristics of the gold, even though he claimed the non-existence and the non-arising of the lion. He made use of the relationship between the gold and the lion to explore the relationship between Li and Shi.

However, Fazang did not explain the factors that make up the noumenon of the gold further. This is inconsistent with how he interpreted the lion. When he analyzed the lion, he focused on the doctrine of dependent arising. When he analyzed the characteristics of the gold, he paid more attention to the unchangeable nature of the noumenon. He no longer discussed the gold from the perspective of dependent arising. The unchangeable nature of Li is the key feature of the Huayan school. The different interpretation of the gold and the lion reflects the unique understanding of the relationship between Li and Shi.

From Fazang’s point of view, the first five chapters used doctrines from early Buddhism, Mādhyamaka, and Yogācāra to interpret the relationship between Li (the gold) and Shi (the lion) in an indirect way. The relationships between different schools under the Huayan system are discussed in Chapter 6.

4. Five Teachings (Chapter 6)

In Chapter 6, Fazang introduced the five teachings with the metaphor of the golden lion. The five teachings are explained by Fazang in his WJZ from ten perspectives. Based on the consideration of the occasion and the purpose of this preaching, Fazang gave a general introduction to the contents of the five teachings for Empress Wu. Although this chapter has the function of carrying on from the previous chapters, its focus is to elicit the contents of the perfect doctrine of one vehicle 一乘圓教.

Fazang had already made sufficient preparations in the first five chapters. In Chapter 6, the content of the Huayan school is expanded. This chapter not only concisely explains the content of the five teachings but also helps Empress Wu understand the unique teachings of Huayan among various Buddhist schools. Fazang briefly introduced the teaching of śrāvakas 聲聞教, the elementary teaching of Mahāyāna 大乘始教, the final teaching of Mahāyāna 大乘終教, the sudden teaching 頓教, and the complete teaching of one vehicle 一乘圓教22 in a hierarchical order.

Structurally, the order of the five teachings is essentially consistent with the order of the Treatise. Under the system of Huayan, the content of early Buddhism belongs to the teaching of śrāvakas, while the contents of Mādhyamaka and Yogācāra belong to the elementary teaching of Mahāyāna. The content of the “unchangeable nature of the gold” could be attributed to the final teaching of Mahāyāna. However, this classification is not arbitrary. For example, when Fazang discussed how “the nature of gold never increases or decreases” in Chapter 5, he included elements of the teaching of śrāvakas and the elementary teaching of Mahāyāna. Therefore, this chapter is ostensibly a classification of the five teachings, but it is the classification that enables Empress Wu to appreciate the DIDCD through the relationships of the five teachings. Under the system of Huayan, the DIDCD can be understood not only through the perfect doctrine of one vehicle but also through any kind of teachings.

When deconstructing the phenomena or appearance of the lion, Fazang indicated that the gold (noumenon) appears and becomes visible as an integrated gold. It is acknowledgeable that the arising phenomena represent the true manifestations of the noumenon. Moreover, the relationship between the one and the all is also demonstrated. There are two perspectives to explain this relationship: the one could be understood as the true manifestation of the noumenon, while the all could be understood as different phenomena. As a result, the relationship between the one and the all could be understood as the relationship between the true manifestations of the noumenon and the phenomena; this is similar to the relationship between the gold and the lion. On the other hand, the relationship between the one and the all could also be interpreted under the DIDCD, wherein everything is connected with everything else. Even if it seems like there is no direct relationship between two distinctive objects (or dhammas), they are connected within the dharmadhātu. There is no exception to this doctrine. This is the second perspective required to understand the relationship between the one and the all. It is preferable to adopt this latter perspective as it is consistent with Fazang’s subsequent preaching regarding the ten mysterious gates and the six characteristics.

Fazang introduced the gold (noumenon) in Chapters 2 to 5. When considering the gold, he did not explore its characteristics further. Although he said that the gold is non-arising, he concentrated more on aspect of the dependent arising of phenomena. This could be interpreted as a transitional preaching from the relationship between noumenon and phenomena to the relationships between phenomena. For the specific content of the five teachings, Fazang’s WJZ provides a more detailed and comprehensive explanation. The Treatise only provides an introduction for Empress Wu (and other learners) that presents a basic idea of the five teachings in a summarized style.

5. Ten Mysterious Gates (Chapter 7)

5.1. An Introduction to the Ten Mysterious Gates

The chapter on the ten mysterious gates is a central part of the Treatise. As explained by Nakanishi (2010, p. 1280) under his understanding of the ten mysterious gates, “a feature of Huayan Buddhism is that it gives a clear explanation of the metaphysical vision in Vairocana’s intent contemplation, which is impossible to express by means of language”. Prior to analyzing its specific content, it is necessary to understand the sources of the ten mysterious gates at first. The ten mysterious gates were originally proposed by Zhiyan rather than Fazang. Zhiyan originally formalized the ten mysterious gates in the HYSXM. It is clear from the name of Zhiyan’s work that the ten mysterious gates are constructed under the one vehicle system of the Huayan school. Zhiyan explained the one vehicle system of the Huayan from ten perspectives. The “ten” is also frequently used in the AS in interpreting doctrines. For example, there are ten types of conducts, ten dedications of merit, and ten stages. Both the AS and the Huayan school use the “ten” to interpret the DIDCD. We can understand the “ten” as a skill means of preachment.

The content of the ten mysterious gates in Fazang’s earlier work is consistent with the ten mysterious gates proposed by Zhiyan (Han 2018, p. 69), although Fazang adjusted the order of the ten gates.23 It should be noted that the ten mysterious gates in other works of Fazang are not exactly the same as these in the Treatise.

5.2. Ten Mysterious Gates in the Treatise

5.2.1. Gate of Simultaneous Completeness

Fazang explained that “the gold and the lion are established simultaneously. They are all perfect and complete”.24 In this gate, Fazang focused not only on dependent arising but also on interpreting the simultaneous interaction between the gold and the lion. In Chapter 1, Fazang claimed that the lion is composed of the conditions of the gold and the skilled craft of the craftsman. However, he did not use this formula to interpret the relationship between the gold and the lion in this chapter, nor did he use the doctrines from the Mādhyamaka and the Yogācāra schools to analyze the simultaneous interaction between the gold and the lion. By focusing on the simultaneous interaction between the gold and the lion, he indicated no preference between them. Only by understanding their relationship in this way can it be called “perfect and complete”.

When considering the relationship between dharmas, sentient beings usually cling to the sequential process. However, in this gate, Fazang considered that the arising of the gold is synchronized with the arising of the lion. A further step is to show the relationship between a dharma and all other dharmas. This is the Huayan philosophy of “one is all, and all is one”. Furthermore, this gate also implies the relationships between the ten gates, meaning that the arising of the first gate is the arising of all gates. All gates and all dharmas thereby interact with one another simultaneously.

5.2.2. Gate of Pure and Mixed Repositories Containing All Virtues

Fazang explained that “if the eye (or the ear) of the lion embraces the lion in its entirety, then all are purely eye (or ear). If all other sense organs embrace the lion in its entirety simultaneously, then each organ is mixed; each organ is (also) pure. So, they are perfect repositories”.25

The pure represents an individual dharma being itself, while the mixed represents a dharma as a whole that contains all other dharmas in the dharmadhātu. The relationship between pure and mixed also represents the doctrine of “one is all, and all is one” as purity is one of the manifestations of the one, while a mixture is one of the manifestations of the all. Zhiyan used another example to illustrate this relationship in his HYSXM. For the issue of the practice of giving, Zhiyan claimed that “it has been called the pure because all practice of the six pāramitās is the practice of giving. It has been called the mixed because of the practice of giving”.26 Thus, when any one of the eyes, ears, or giving represents the dharmas in the dharmadhātu, this is a manifestation of the pure. When it is necessary to express the difference between a dharma and other dharmas in the dharmadhātu, this is a manifestation of the mixed. Therefore, any dharma can express the pure and the mixed simultaneously.

5.2.3. Gate of Mutual Inclusion and Yet Difference of the One and the Many

Fazang explained that “the gold and the lion are established with mutual inclusion. And there is no obstruction between the one and the many. The Li and the Shi are not identical. Whether it is the one, or the many, they are all in different positions”.27 The gold represents the noumenon, or Li (the one), while the lion represents the phenomena, or Shi (the many). In this gate, their relationship can be considered from two perspectives: on the one hand, the one and the many are not identical. On the other hand, “the one and the many are compatible with each other”. (Hsian-du 2006, p. 134) More specifically, “(in the dharmadhātu), each phenomenon represents noumenon. The one is the many, and the many is the one” (Fang 2012, p. 113). Thus, the one and the many are mutually inclusive.

Fazang extended the relationship between the gold and the lion to the relationship between Li and Shi. The essence of this is the relationship between noumenon and phenomena in the dharmadhātu. Under the system of Huayan, we should not limit our scope to the level of the relationship between noumenon and phenomena. Based on the DIDCD, each dharma is related to other dharmas. The one is the dharma interacts with countless other dharmas (the many), and the many (other dharmas) also interacts with the original dharma (the one). In the dharmadhātu, one dharma gives rise to all dharmas, and one dharma also contains all dharmas. This is what Fazang called “mutual inclusion and yet difference”.28

5.2.4. Gate of Freedom of Mutual Identity of All Dharmas

As pointed out by Fazang, “each sense organ in the lion, such as the eye, ear, nose and hair, is capable of containing all the characteristics of the lion because they are all the gold”.29 He further claimed that “each of the sense organs permeates the eye of the lion. The eye is the ear, the ear is the nose, the nose is the tongue, the tongue is the body. They all exist freely and without obstacles”.30

Compared with the third gate which pays more attention to the relationship between noumenon and phenomena, this gate pays more attention to interpreting the relationship between phenomena. There are conditions and conditioned dharmas. The third gate explores the relationships between conditions and conditioned dharmas. This gate further explains the relationships between all conditioned dharmas.31 This is the relationship between Shi and Shi as disclosed in the Huayan school.

In the dharmadhātu, each eye, ear, nose, tongue, body, or hair represents a separate phenomenon. Learners may be able to identify the relationships between individual sense organs (phenomena) and the lion (noumenon); however, it is difficult for them to properly recognize the relationships between sense organs (phenomena). This is why Fazang explained this gate. This gate shows the relationships between phenomena in the dharmadhātu by explaining the relationships between different sense organs. As claimed by Fazang, “The eye is the ear, the ear is the nose, the nose is the tongue, the tongue is the body”.32 Since each sense organ in the lion is composed of the gold, they are inherently unhindered. Similarly, each phenomenon exists freely without obstacles in the dharmadhātu. Meanwhile, Fazang implied that each phenomenon has its own characteristics and, therefore, that phenomenon is not identical to other phenomena. For instance, the eyes and ears of the lion are in different parts of the lion and their shapes are different. Therefore, they also manifest themselves differently.

Based on this gate, we can understand the relationships between phenomena in the dharmadhātu. On the one hand, they co-exist freely without any obstacles. Each of the sense organs (phenomena) permeates the eye of the lion (noumenon). On the other hand, they manifest themselves in different manners. This means that each phenomenon still retains its unique individual characteristics. This is what Fazang called “freedom of mutual identity of all dharmas”.33

5.2.5. Gate of Simultaneous Concealment and Revelation

“When seeing the lion, there is only the lion and no gold. The lion is revealed, and the gold is concealed”.34 Conversely, “when seeing the gold, there is only the gold and no lion. The gold is revealed, and the lion is concealed”.35 Furthermore, “if one looks at both of them (simultaneously), then they are both concealed and revealed (simultaneously). If they are concealed, they are secret; if they are revealed, they are visible”.36 Fazang explained the relationship between all dharmas in the dharmadhātu through the relationship between concealment and revelation. The lion refers to a revealed dharma and the gold refers to a concealed dharma. In terms of dependent arising, sentient beings can recognize the relationships between the revealed dharma and other dharmas, but it is difficult for them to recognize the relationships between the concealed dharma and other dharmas. In the dharmadhātu, each dharma is related to all other dharmas, regardless of whether they are revealed or concealed. If we can only identify the connection between the revealed dharma and other dharmas, this is not the full substance of the DIDCD. In addition, as explained by Fazang, the transition between concealment and revelation between the gold and the lion is also simultaneous. If a dharma can be manifested as a revealed dharma, it can also be manifested as a concealed dharma or as a dharma that manifests simultaneously as both concealed and revealed.

5.2.6. Gate of Mutual Containment and Establishment

The focus of this gate is on interpreting the relationship between dharmas in the dharmadhātu in terms of different sizes or shapes. The particle 極微, which is the smallest thing (dharma) in Buddhism, is discussed in detail in the Abhidharma. In this gate, the particle is used to express the smallest dharma in the dharmadhātu. As claimed by Fazang, “the gold and the lion may be concealed or revealed, one or many, pure or mixed, powerful or powerless”.37 These four relationships expounded by Fazang express the relationship between Li (the gold) and Shi (the lion) in the Huayan system. Chengguan 澄觀 (738–839), who was the fourth patriarch of the Huayan school, explained the Fourfold Dharmadhātu 四法界, which comprises the dharmadhātu of Shi 事法界 (the first layer), the dharmadhātu of Li 理法界 (the second layer), the dharmadhātu of non-obstruction of Li and Shi 理事無礙法界 (the third layer), and the dharmadhātu of non-obstruction of Shi and Shi 事事無礙法界 (the fourth layer).38 The dharmadhātu of non-obstruction of Shi and Shi is the highest layer. However, it should be noted that from a macro perspective, we can understand the DIDCD not only from the fourth layer but from any layer. On a micro level, Fazang proved that there are no obstacles between dharmas through the mutual containment 相攝 of the gold and the lion.

As claimed by Fang (2012, p. 116), “even a pore from a Buddha contains all Buddhas, all realms, all times, and even all benefits”. It is difficult for learners to understand the relationship between the large size of dharma and the small size of dharma. Learners may think that the large size of dharma) and the small size of dharma are incompatible, however, in the Huayan school, as claimed by Chen (1996, p. 76), “the large (size of dharma) arises in dependence, the small (size of dharma) also arises in dependence”. Both of them have no self-nature. Extending this relationship to the entire Dharmadhātu, there is no hindrance between all dharmas, regardless of their sizes and shapes. Thus, they are all mutually contained in the Dharmadhātu.

5.2.7. Gate of the Realm of Indra’s Net

Although this is the seventh gate, it could be considered a summary of the ten mysterious gates. Indra’s net is used to describe the relationships between all dharmas in the Dharmadhātu. As claimed by Fazang, “each of the lion’s eyes, ears, limbs, and even hair contains a golden lion”.39 He further claimed that “the lions in each hair (or another sense organ) instantaneously and simultaneously enter into a single hair. In each hair, there are infinite lions. Again, each hair carries these infinite lions returns into the one hair”.40 After using the lion as a metaphor, Fazang extended this relationship to the entire Dharmadhātu. He further claimed that “this dynamic process repeats infinitely and never ends, like the heavenly emperor’s net of pearls”.41 The net of pearls was used by Fazang to show the infinite dharmadhātu. In the dharmadhātu, all dharmas are interdependent, resembling an endless mesh. Fazang embodied the infinite characteristics in the dharmadhātu through the relationship between hair and lion. This is what “returns into” 還入 means in his analysis.

In the first six gates, Fazang interpreted the relationships between the gold and the lion from several angles. However, according to the DIDCD, the relationship between each dharma in the dharmadhātu is not only interdependent but also mutually inclusive. This interdependency means that the relationship between dharmas is not single threaded, but an interconnected relationship resembling a mesh. All the dharmas in this mesh are in a never-ending state of constant change. This is an extension of the relationship between the gold and the lion based on the DIDCD. Compared with the interpretations from other gates in terms of size, shape, and time, this gate builds on that foundation to explain the application of the DIDCD in the dharmadhātu as a whole, in particular, from the perspective of the dynamic process between all dharmas in the dharmadhātu. In this network, whether this dharma belongs to the phenomena or the noumenon, there is a constant and dynamic connection between this dharma and all other dharmas. Therefore, this dynamic relationship is well established, both from a particular perspective (e.g., size, shape, or time) and from that of the dharmadhātu as a whole.

5.2.8. Gate of Illustrating the Understanding of the Dharma (Thing) through Phenomena

As claimed by Fazang, “the lion is used to express ignorance. The nature of gold is spoken to reveal the true nature (of all dharmas). The purpose of discussing Li and Shi together is to understand ālayavijñāna correctly”.42 Fazang tried to emphasize the relationship between Shi and Shi in this gate. Through the relationship between Shi and Shi, Fazang illustrated to Empress Wu that the DIDCD can be understood through any dharma. The Shi in this gate can be further interpreted as either a phenomenon or any of the dharmas in the dharmadhātu. Through this example, we can understand the interdependency of dharmas in the dharmadhātu, regardless of the type of the dharma.

In this gate, the focus is on explaining how the DIDCD can be understood through phenomena. The golden lion in Changsheng Palace is one example of Fazang using an ordinary thing (dharma) to explain the DIDCD. According to Fazang’s explanation, sentient beings can realize the DIDCD through any kind of dharma. From the perspective of Shi, that is, from the perspective of phenomena, we can understand the relationships between phenomena and noumenon through a phenomenon. Moreover, the relationships between phenomena can also be comprehended through a phenomenon. Extending this relationship to the dharmadhātu, sentient beings can comprehend the DIDCD from one flower or fruit mentioned in the AS.

5.2.9. Gate of Different Formation of Separated Dharmas through Ten Ages

In this gate, Fazang extended the understanding of the DIDCD from space to time. It also implies that the DIDCD includes all perspectives in the dharmadhātu and is not limited to space and time. As claimed by Fazang, “the lion is the conditioned dharma and it arises and annihilates at all times. In an instant (kṣana), it is divided into three ages, namely past, present, and future. In each age, it is further subdivided into past, present, and future”.43 Fazang summarized by saying that “there are three ages in each of the three ages, for a total of nine ages”.44 The nine connected ages are called “a section of the Dharma Door”.45 Based on this relationship, Fazang further claimed that “although these nine ages have their own nature, they are mutually established and compatible with each other. Therefore, (only) one mind is required (to establish nine ages)”.46 These nine ages plus one mind are what Fazang called the “ten ages” 十世.

When it comes to any age, it is related both to other ages and other dharmas in the dharmadhātu. The focus of this gate is on explaining the relationships between one age and other related ages. Under the Huayan system, all ages are interdependent with other ages. It means all ages require other ages to be established, and all ages become conditions for the establishment of other ages. Take the past as an example: On the one hand, the past has characteristics that distinguish it from the present and the future. On the other hand, the past is interconnected with the present and the future. The present and the future are conditions for the establishment of the past. In fact, there is no time limit under the Huayan system. Because each age can be subdivided infinitely, there are not only nine ages but infinite ages. Whether there are nine ages or infinite ages, all are constantly and endlessly interconnected under one mind. This dynamic process of ages is the manifestation of the DIDCD from the perspective of time.

5.2.10. Gate of Realization of Goodness Based on the Operation of the Mind

This gate follows the previous one, highlighting the function of the one mind in the dharmadhātu. As claimed by Fazang, “the gold and the lion, either concealed or revealed, one or many, have no self-nature. (All dharmas) turn from the mind, whether from the perspective of Shi (phenomena) or Li (noumenon), there is (only one mind) by which they are formed”.47 This gate seems to be a response to the contents of the first three chapters, that is, while acknowledging the dependent arising, it highlights the understanding and emphasis on the mind from the perspective of the Huayan school. Although the Huayan school attributes great importance to the interpretation of the dynamic changes in the relationships between dharmas in the dharmadhātu, it also emphasizes the importance of the mind. As Fazang said, “all dharmas in the three realms are created by a single mind”.48 Fazang ultimately linked the dharmadhātu with one mind, constituting a unique ontology of the dharmadhātu.

5.3. The Influence of the Ten Mysterious Gates

This chapter is the core of the Treatise. Functionally, the rest of the chapters are centered around the ten mysterious gates. The influence of the Treatise on Chinese Buddhism is also reflected in this chapter.

In terms of content, the ten mysterious gates in the Treatise are different from the ten mysterious gates proposed by Zhiyan, and they are also different from the ten mysterious gates proposed by Fazang in his TXJ and WJZ. The multiple versions of the ten mysterious gates have given rise to extensive scholarly discussion in the history of Chinese Buddhism. The ten mysterious gates in the Treatise reflect the transition in Fazang’s understanding of the DIDCD after the retranslation of the AS.

The doctrine of the ten mysterious gates was first introduced by Zhiyan, who summarized the ten gates to give learners a better understanding of the AS and, specifically, the DIDCD. When Fazang further explored the meaning of the ten gates, he changed their order in his early writings. In the Treatise, Fazang did not make major alterations, although there were some minor changes. For instance, in multiple versions of the ten gates, only the Huayanjing wenyigangmu 花嚴經文義綱目 (Outline of the Avataṃsaka Sūtra) T1734(35) and the Treatise contain “the gate of realization of goodness based on the operation of mind” 唯心回轉善成門, and only the Treatise positions it as the last gate. This is an indication of the importance that Fazang placed on the mind at this stage. However, this gate is replaced in the TXJ with the gate of “the principal and satellites completely illumined and containing all qualities” 主伴圓明具德門. As claimed by Kamata (1965, p. 553):

the disappearance of the gate of realization of goodness based on the operation of mind in the new ten gates49 is the result of Fazang’s departure from the idea of the Dacheng qixinlun 大乘起信論 (Mahāyāna śraddhotpādaśāstra) centered on the pure heart of the Tathagata from the standpoint of Huayan.

From this change, when Fazang produced the Treatise, his understanding of the DIDCD changed somewhat compared to his earlier writings, but it was still in a transitional period.

In addition to the tenth gate, the second “gate of pure and mixed repositories containing all virtues” 諸藏純雜具德門 is also replaced by the “gate of mutual inclusion of the broad and the narrow without impediment” 廣狹自在無礙門 in the TXJ. Compared with the replacement of the tenth gate, the modification of the name of the second gate is mainly reflected in the emphasis on the relationships between phenomena. As explained by Lv (1979, p. 362), “the updated second gate brings attention to the aspect of the relationships between phenomena and removes the traces of the relationships between noumenon and phenomena”. This change is less obvious than the change in the tenth gate. It indicates that Fazang paid more attention to the interpretation of the DIDCD in terms of the relationships between phenomena.

Although there are only ten gates, the number of gates in the Huayan school is infinite. It is recognizable that the ten gates used by Fazang are ten typical and easily acceptable methods for sentient beings to notice and realize the “mysteries” of the Huayan school. If we can understand the ten gates, we will realize that there is no hindrance within the dharmadhātu and we can recognize that each dharma is connected with all other dharmas within the dharmadhātu. The explanation of the ten mysterious gates is only a skill means for Zhiyan and Fazang (and also Chengguan) to preach the DIDCD to learns based on their levels of acceptance in that specific social, political, and cultural background.

6. Six Characteristics (Chapter 8)

In this chapter, Fazang claimed that “the lion represents the characteristic of totality 總相.The difference between the five sense organs represents the characteristic of particularity 別相”.50 He used the five sense organs to describe the characteristics of identity 同相, differentiation 異相, formation 成相, and disintegration 壞相. For instance, he claimed that “the combination of all sense organs constitutes the lion. It represents the characteristic of formation. Each sense organ abides in its own position. It represents the characteristic of disintegration”.51

The exposition of the basic principles of the six characteristics on which Fazang focused follows the explanation of the ten gates. In his account of the ten gates, Fazang presented the content of the DIDCD through ten perspectives. In comparison, Fazang is relatively specific in his account of the ten gates, while he is more concise and even had a sense of summary in his preaching of the six characteristics.52 This is also consistent with the occasion of Fazang’s statement. When he preached the core teachings of the Huayan school in Changsheng Palace, Fazang could not develop his understanding of the DIDCD in all aspects. After expounding the core idea of the DIDCD in ten areas, Fazang needed to provide a summary. He briefly described the Huayan system of interdependency from six perspectives: totality, particularity, identity, differentiation, formation, and disintegration. This gave Empress Wu an understanding of the DIDCD on both the micro and the macro levels. Both the ten mysterious gates and the six characteristics were Fazang’s response to Empress Wu’s request to preach the teachings of Huayan at that time. Therefore, this chapter is not only an extension of the previous chapter but also a summary of the DIDCD at the macro level. In terms of the content, whether it is the ten mysterious gates or the six characteristics, they are all Fazang’s way of proclaiming the teachings of Huayan for learners from the realm of the Buddha.

7. Manifestation of the Distinctive Teaching of One Vehicle

Fazang discussed the complete teaching of one vehicle 一乘圓教 in Chapter 6. The one vehicle in his preaching is not identical to the one vehicle of the Tian’tai school 天臺宗. Under the Huayan system, the one vehicle is subdivided into the common teaching of one vehicle 一乘同教 and the distinctive teaching of one vehicle 一乘別教. The distinctive teaching of one vehicle is the perfect doctrine of one vehicle as defined by Fazang. The common teaching of one vehicle is a reference to the one vehicle of the Tian’tai school under the unique classifications of the teachings of the Huayan school.

In the Huayan school, the distinctive teaching of one vehicle is the most advanced approach. The DIDCD, which is revealed in the Treatise, also belongs to the content of the distinctive teaching of one vehicle. The manner and content of Fazang’s preaching demonstrate the uniqueness of the DIDCD, which is that one can “Rufajie” 入法界 (enter the dharmadhātu)53 from all dharmas. Fazang used a gradual approach in the first five chapters to open up the relationship between the Huayan school and other schools. However, his intention was not that the DIDCD can only be understood through the ten mysterious gates and the six characteristics. It is still possible to enter the dharmadhātu through any of the teachings such as the doctrine of dependent arising and the theory of three natures.

The structure of the Treatise not only reflects the relationship between the distinctive teaching of one vehicle and other teachings but also reflects the relationship between two types of one vehicle. On the one hand, because the first five chapters are derived from doctrines other than the distinctive teaching of one vehicle, they reflect the relationships between the distinctive teaching of one vehicle and other teachings, such as the doctrines of early Buddhism, Mādhyamaka, and Yogācāra. On the other hand, the way that Fazang preached the Treatise also reflected the differences and connections between the common teaching of one vehicle and the distinctive teaching of one vehicle. The progressive manner in which Fazang preached in Chapters 1–5 was intended to enable Empress Wu to understand the DIDCD through the common teaching of one vehicle. This is the process that guided Empress Wu from understanding the teachings of three vehicles to one vehicle. It is also referred to as “to unite the three vehicles in one” 會三歸一 in the Tian’tai school. In terms of the first five chapters, Fazang adopted this approach mainly in view of the acceptability of the Huayan teachings to learners.

As far as the one vehicle is concerned, the way of comprehending the distinctive teaching of one vehicle is not identical from the common teaching of one vehicle. Those who can accept and master the distinctive teaching of one vehicle will be able to understand the DIDCD from any of the doctrines explained by Fazang. Under Huayan school, anyone can enter the dharmadhātu from any dharma. Whether it is the lion or the gold, the ten mysterious gates or the six characteristics, these are examples employed by Fazang when he preached. Those who are deeply enlightened in the distinctive teaching of one vehicle can understand the DIDCD even at the beginning of the Treatise without having to wait until Fazang preached on the ten mysterious gates or the six characteristics. Therefore, in understanding the DIDCD, one should not limit its scope to the doctrines disclosed in the Treatise. One can enter the dharmadhātu through any dharma after understanding the DIDCD. This is also the reflection of the doctrine of “one is all, and all is one”.

It should be noted that although Fazang adopted two types of one vehicle in the Treatise, the focus was to enable Empress Wu to comprehend the DIDCD from any dharma. Therefore, the distinctive teaching of one vehicle was the focus of Fazang’s preaching.

8. Ultimate Purpose of Preaching (Chapters 9 and 10)

After explaining the ten mysterious gates and the six characteristics to Empress Wu, Fazang concluded the Treatise with bodhi and nirvana. These concepts are closely related to the ultimate purpose of the preaching of the Dharma by the Buddha, especially in the framework of Chinese Buddhism.

The definition of bodhi is explained as the path or enlightenment in Chapter 9.54 More specifically, Fazang explained that “when observing the lion, we can see all the conditioned dharmas 有為法 are all originally interdependent”.55 Therefore, we should not grasp or abandon all of them. Only in this way can we enter the path of enlightenment and attain omniscience 一切種智. Moreover, Fazang defined “nirvana as the permanent abandonment of suffering”.56 In that event, our minds cease to fluctuate under any circumstances.

The main purpose of Fazang’s preaching was to enable Empress Wu to understand the core teachings of the Huayan school in a concise and gradual way. However, this did not prevent Fazang from directly stating the ultimate purpose of the Treatise in this context. During the High Tang 盛唐 period (650–755), when Mahāyāna Buddhism was flourishing, the ultimate goal of both the Huayan and other schools was to enable sentient beings to attain bodhi and nirvana. Therefore, the ultimate purpose of understanding the DIDCD is also to enable sentient beings to attain bodhi and nirvana. Regardless of the manner of explanation, the ultimate purpose of Fazang’s preaching of this Treatise is consistent with the preaching of the Dharma by the Buddha: for all sentient beings to attain the path of bodhi and abandon the suffering permanently.

9. Conclusions

The above statements are an exploration of the DIDCD based on the Treatise. It is crucial to recognize the intention and the corresponding background of this preaching. Compared with other commentaries by Fazang, the purpose of the Treatise was not for learners to comprehensively understand the DIDCD. Rather, its function is to provide a guideline for those who find it difficult to understand the general concept and framework of the DIDCD. In the Huayan system, the related doctrines from other Indian Buddhist schools are used as a skill means to illustrate that the highest teaching of Buddhism is the distinctive teaching of one vehicle. The concepts of the ten mysterious gates and the six characteristics are intended to explain the DIDCD in detailed and summarized manners, respectively. This is the key teaching of the Huayan school that Fazang disclosed to all learners, not just to Empress Wu.

The Treatise, as well as other texts of Huayan school, also reveals the characteristics of Chinese thought. In ancient China, the mainstream thought was affected by Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism. As summarized by Shi (2012, p. 23), the Huayan patriarchs not only reveal the secrets of religious experience from the religious sphere, but they also unveil these teachings. Fazang and other patriarchs of the Huayan school took flexible manner to deal with the thought in the AS. The expansion and development of the Huayan school during the Tang dynasty took place under such a social and cultural background. During the High Tang period, Fazang produced many influential works, interpreting the Huayan teachings from different angles. Among all of his works, only the Treatise was preached on request, and it was requested by a reputable Buddhist monarch (Empress Wu) in medieval China.

The Treatise is a well-structured, progressive, and short work by Fazang, who was the actual founder of the Huayan school. Because it is short and concise, it is perceived as less influential in the Huayan school and Chinese Buddhism than Fazang’s WJZ and the TXJ. However, the influence of the Treatise is still worthy of attention for two reasons.

On the one hand, the ten mysterious gates in the Treatise performs a transitional function between the old ten gates and the new ten gates. The focus of the ten mysterious gates in the Treatise reflects the changing emphasis in Fazang’s understanding of the one vehicle, and this is helpful for subsequent studies of the evolution of Fazang’s thought. On the other hand, and more easily overlooked, the preaching of the Treatise promoted the dissemination of the AS. It is no coincidence that Empress Wu’s summons came in the same year as the completion of the retranslation of the AS. The retranslation of the AS made Empress Wu interested in the six characteristics, the ten mysterious gates, and other Huayan doctrines, leading to Fazang’s preaching of the Treatise at Changsheng Palace. The preaching of the Treatise naturally facilitated the dissemination of the AS. From 699 onward, the retranslated version of the AS became the mainstream version of the disseminated Huayan scriptures.