The Bahá’í Faith and the Equality, Rights, and Advancement of Women: A Survey of Principles, Praxis, and Discourse
Abstract
:1. Introduction
1.1. Historical Context
1.2. Role of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in Promoting the Equality, Rights, Participation, and Activism of Women
1.3. Some Basic Concepts in the Bahá’í Texts Regarding Women and Girls
Equality between men and women is conducive to the abolition of warfare for the reason that women will never be willing to sanction it. Mothers will not give their sons as sacrifices upon the battlefield after twenty years of anxiety and loving devotion in rearing them from infancy, no matter what cause they are called upon to defend. There is no doubt that when women obtain equality of rights, war will entirely cease among mankind.
1.4. Basic Concepts
1.4.1. Nature and Qualities of Women
1.4.2. Equality of Women and Men
1.4.3. Rights of Women
1.4.4. Respect
1.4.5. Work
1.4.6. Education of Women and Girls
1.4.7. Peace
1.4.8. Harmful Traditional Practices
1.4.9. Marriage
1.4.10. Inheritance
1.5. Bahá’í Contribution to the Discourses of Society: The Discourse on Women and Girls
1.5.1. The Discourse in Iran
1.5.2. The Discourse in Europe and North America
The modern suffragette is fighting for what must be, and many of these are willing martyrs to imprisonment for their cause. One might not approve of the ways of some of the more militant suffragettes, but in the end it will adjust itself. If women were given the same advantages as men, their capacity being the same, the result would be the same. In fact, women have a superior disposition to men; they are more receptive, more sensitive, and their intuition is more intense. The only reason of their present backwardness in some directions is because they have not had the same educational advantages as men.All children should be educated, but if parents cannot educate both the boys and the girls, then it would be better to educate the girls, for they will be the mothers of the coming generation … The world in the past has been ruled by force, and man has dominated over woman by reason of his more forceful and aggressive qualities both of body and mind. But the scales are already shifting—force is losing its weight and mental alertness, intuition, and the spiritual qualities of love and service, in which woman is strong, are gaining ascendency. Hence the new age will be an age less masculine, and more permeated with the feminine ideals—or, to speak more exactly, will be an age in which the masculine and feminine elements of civilization will be more properly balanced.
… only a small number of those who had accepted the Faith—and infinitely fewer among the public audiences who had thronged to hear His words—derived from these priceless opportunities more than a relatively dim understanding of the implications of His message.
1.5.3. Contributions to the Discourse on Women through Global Institutions
The League of Nations
The International Bahá’í Bureau
The Bahá’í International Community (BIC)
RESOLVED: That the Non-Governmental Organizations endeavor through their local branches and with the permission of the governing authorities to educate and prepare the peoples of nonmember nations for their eventual entry into the United Nations.RESOLVED: That the Non-Governmental Organizations who here represent a good portion of the world’s population can go far in the implementation of Article No. 1 of the Declaration of Human Rights by themselves setting the example within their own organization by eliminating within these organizations all sorts of prejudice whether it be that of race, creed or color. They would thus present a living example of the implementation of Article No. 1.
2. Theme A: Equality of Women and Men
2.1. Bahá’í Texts
And among the teachings of His Holiness Bahá’u’lláh is the equality of women and men. The world of humanity has two wings—one is women and the other men. Not until both wings are equally developed can the bird fly. Should one wing remain weak, flight is impossible.(‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in Bahá’í World Faith 1976, p. 288)
Until the reality of equality between man and woman is fully established and attained, the highest social development of mankind is not possible … And let it be known once more that until woman and man recognize and realize equality, social and political progress here or anywhere will not be possible. For the world of humanity consists of two parts or members: one is woman; the other is man. Until these two members are equal in strength, the oneness of humanity cannot be established, and the happiness and felicity of mankind will not be a reality.
2.2. Praxis
Consider, for instance, the Bahá’í community’s long-standing commitment to the advancement of women, and to the equality of women and men, in the context of deeply patriarchal forces that are still at play in many parts of the world. In such contexts, Bahá’ís have been among the first to reject the forced veiling of women, to declare the full equality of women and men, and to begin translating this principle into practice in every arena of family and community life by prioritizing the education of girls, fostering professional and administrative capacities in women, and empowering women to become protagonists of social change within their societies. Not surprisingly, this unwavering commitment to the equality of women and men has been used, in some countries, as a pretext for ongoing calumnies and assaults against Bahá’ís.
All women in Persia are enveloped in veils in public. So completely covered are they that even the hand is not visible. This rigid veiling is unspeakable.
2.2.1. The Bahá’í Training Institute
2.2.2. Barli Development Institute for Rural Women, Indore, India
2.3. Discourse
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- ‘Sex equality is a basic Bahá’í principle’
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- ‘The present imbalance in society, which results from the dominance of man over woman, is a dangerous phenomenon and may be considered as one cause of war.’
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- ‘Sex equality connotes an organic change in the social structure.’
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- ‘The Bahá’í teachings advocate for women an education equal to that received by men, since woman is the first educator of the child; and opportunity to pursue any career for which they are qualified, with special emphasis on their role as keepers of the peace’ (BIC 1947b).
The emancipation of women, the achievement of full equality between the sexes, is one of the most important, though less acknowledged prerequisites of peace. The denial of such equality perpetrates an injustice against one half of the world’s population and promotes in men harmful attitudes and habits that are carried from the family to the workplace, to political life, and ultimately to international relations. There are no grounds, moral, practical, or biological, upon which such denial can be justified. Only as women are welcomed into full partnership in all fields of human endeavour will the moral and psychological climate be created in which international peace can emerge.
We cherish the hope that through the earnest endeavours of such as are the exponents of the power of God—exalted be His glory—the weapons of war throughout the world may be converted into instruments of reconstruction and that strife and conflict may be removed from the midst of men.
Soon will the present-day order be rolled up, and a new one spread out in its stead.
The principle of the Oneness of Mankind—the pivot round which all the teachings of Bahá’u’lláh revolve … does not constitute merely the enunciation of an ideal … It implies an organic change in the structure of present-day society, a change such as the world has not yet experienced.
Despite these advances … the underlying materialistic assumptions driving poverty eradication efforts remain virtually unchallenged: it is generally accepted that an increase in material resources will eradicate this condition from human life. … Yet the most persistent ills obstructing the peaceful development of peoples and nations—the marginalization of girls and women, failing states, the lack of political freedoms, the spread of HIV/AIDS, the proliferation of weapons and violent conflict, inter-ethnic and racial tensions, religious intolerance and extremism, lawlessness and growing unemployment—cannot be alleviated by material means alone. These social ills evidence a different kind of poverty—one rooted in the values and attitudes that shape relationships between individuals, communities, and nations as well as between the governors and the governed.
While guiding principle ‘A. Participation by the poor’, includes a section regarding women in poverty, the persistently disproportionate number of women among the world’s poor, including elderly women, the systemic violation of girls’ and women’s rights, and the gross under-representation of women in governance at all levels, merits the creation of a separate principle termed, ‘equality of men and women’, to guide all poverty alleviation efforts. The aim of this principle is not only to call attention to the dire condition of women but also to remind states that the full and confident participation of women in legal, political, economic, academic, social and artistic arenas is a prerequisite for a more just and peaceful development pathway. Their participation, in turn, opens up opportunities for men and boys to excel as fathers, husbands, workers, community members and leaders in ways that do not exist today.(BIC 2007)
Efforts to achieve gender equality are frequently framed as battles for power. In its contentious expression, power generates inequality, violence, and exploitation, and cannot easily be oriented to the common or interpersonal good. In a system that is set up like a zero-sum game, it may make sense to fight for access to limited resources and for positions of privilege. Yet, is a zero-sum paradigm the pinnacle of social organization?
3. Theme B: Education of the Girl Child
3.1. Bahá’í Texts
Unto every father hath been enjoined the instruction of his son and daughter in the art of reading and writing and in all that hath been laid down in the Holy Tablet.
‘Abdu’l-Bahá, in His Tablets, not only calls attention to the responsibility of parents to educate all their children, but He also clearly specifies that the ‘training and culture of daughters is more necessary than that of sons’, for girls will one day be mothers, and mothers are the first educators of the new generation. If it is not possible, therefore, for a family to educate all the children, preference is to be accorded to daughters since, through educated mothers, the benefits of knowledge can be most effectively and rapidly diffused throughout society.(quoted in Bahá’u’lláh 1992, n76)
Daughters and sons must follow the same curriculum of study, thereby promoting unity of the sexes.
She must become proficient in the arts and sciences and prove by her accomplishments that her abilities and powers have merely been latent … Woman must especially devote her energies and abilities toward the industrial and agricultural sciences, seeking to assist mankind in that which is most needful.
3.2. Praxis
3.2.1. Education of Girls in Iran
The Bahá’í World Centre has recorded some 20,000 items as works of Bahá’u’lláh and 30,000 as works of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá, the vast majority being letters to their followers in Iran. The Bahá’í leaders encouraged their followers to be less parochial and more global in their outlook, to seek education and to raise the position of women in their communities.
It is the Persian Bahá’ís who have most ardently sought out and developed the advantages of modern education, including instruction in technical subjects; it is the Persian Bahá’ís who have psychologically overcome the traditional discrimination against women; and it is the Persian Bahá’ís finally, who, of all citizens, have cultivated the simple virtues of honesty, good-will and co-operation which are the vital elements in any democracy worthy the name.
3.2.2. Education of Girls in the 21st Century
After-school programs could be of great use and benefit as well, allowing children to have a safe space away from their home lives. Baha’i communities are an incredible example, where they have found multiple ways to prioritize and bring education to children who need it. There is a definitive aspiration by many to boost education in the Central African Republic and more success stories such as the one in Baha’i are inevitable.
3.3. Discourse
To place greater emphasis on the importance of the contribution of women as mothers and as educators of children … parents are urged to give preference to the education of girls if both boys and girls in the family cannot be given equal opportunity for education.
It is not the Bahá’í view, however, that women are to be considered important only in relationship to the rearing of children and attending to the duties of the household. The importance placed on the education of women in the Bahá’í Faith is intended to bring about the equality of men and women.
A fundamental component of resolving the climate change challenge will be the cultivation of values, attitudes and skills that give rise to just and sustainable patterns of human interaction with the environment … In practical terms, this means that girls and boys must be afforded access to the same curricula, with priority given to the girl child who will one day assume the role of educating future generations. The curriculum itself must seek to develop in children the capacity to think in terms of systems, processes and relationships rather than in terms of isolated disciplines. Indeed, the problem of climate change has powerfully demonstrated the need for integrated and systemic approaches. Students must also be given the concrete skills to translate their awareness into action. This can be accomplished, in part, through incorporating an element of public service into curricula, thereby helping students to develop the ability to initiate projects, to inspire action, to engage in collective decision-making and to cultivate their sense of dignity and self-worth. Overall, the curriculum should strive to integrate theoretical and practical considerations as well as to link notions of individual progress with service to the broader community.
In order for youth to play their important role, the inequities of girls’ access to quality education must be addressed. As has been repeatedly affirmed, the education of girls has a ‘multiplier effect’—it results in reduced chances of early marriage, greater likelihood of girls’ informed and active role in family planning, reduced infant and maternal mortality, enhanced participation of girls in social, economic and political decision-making, and the promotion of economic prosperity. This is particularly urgent in parts of the world where adolescent girls are married and begin to bear children. The need to extend educational opportunities to girls rests on the understanding that the equality of men and women, boys and girls is a fundamental truth about human reality and not just a desirable condition to be achieved for the good of society. Their full participation in the arenas of law, politics, science and technology, commerce, and religion, to name but a few, are needed to forge a social order enlightened by the contributions and wisdom of fully half of the world’s population … Governments, then, must follow through on their commitments to prohibit the unjust practices of infanticide, prenatal sex selection, female genital mutilation, trafficking of girl children and use of girls in prostitution and pornography, and to enforce laws to ensure that marriage is entered into only with the free and full consent of both spouses. The overarching objective must be to address the root causes of gender bias so that all people can play their rightful role in the transformation of society.
Ultimately, it is imperative to address women’s rights in a manner that recognizes the woman’s full role in society and fosters her sense of self-worth as well as the intrinsic nobility of every woman, man and child … without a comprehensive approach to women’s rights, their efforts may prove ineffective or unsustainable. A literate woman is more likely to make better health decisions. It has been shown that one to three years of a mothers’ schooling can decrease children’s mortality rate by 15 percent. An economically sustained woman will have a greater ability to avoid sex trafficking and slavery. Women in good health have the opportunity to pursue educational and economic opportunities and to contribute more fully to the betterment of society.Boys born into such environments are also the beneficiaries. With educated and healthy mothers comes a reduced risk of involvement in sexual crimes and other offenses as youth and adults. As women are the first educators of their children, young boys will be more likely to reap the benefits of literacy, economic opportunity, and good health as well. This cycle will be reinforcing, resulting in a tipping point at which the society will no longer tolerate the oppression of its girls and women.
4. Theme C: Leadership and Participation
4.1. Bahá’í Texts
The woman has greater moral courage than the man; she has also special gifts which enable her to govern in moments of danger and crisis.
… both women and men are eligible for election to Secondary and Local Houses of Justice.(currently designated as National and Local Spiritual Assemblies; Bahá’u’lláh 1992, n80)
4.2. Praxis
4.2.1. Women’s Participation in Bahá’í Elections and Membership of Bahá’í Institutions
4.2.2. Women and the Establishment of Bahá’í Institutions
United States
In the law of God, men and women are equal in all rights save in the Universal House of Justice, for the Chairman and members of the House of Justice are men according to the Text of the Book. Aside from this, in all the rest of the Associations, like the Convention for building the Mashreq’Ul-Azkar, the Assembly of Teaching, the Spiritual Assembly, Philanthropic Association, Scientific Associations, men and women are co-partners in all the rights
Heartily endorse Convention’s choice. May America’s National representatives fulfill our fondest expectations ….Shoghi (Shoghi Effendi, in Baha’i News Letter 1925, p. 7)
British Isles
Other Countries
4.2.3. Membership of Women on National Spiritual Assemblies
… to consider without the least trace of passion and prejudice, and irrespective of any material consideration, the names of only those who can best combine the necessary qualities of unquestioned loyalty, of selfless devotion, of a well-trained mind, of recognized ability and mature experience.
I feel that reference to personalities before the election would give rise to misunderstanding and differences. What the friends should do is to get thoroughly acquainted with one another, to exchange views, to mix freely and discuss among themselves the requirements and qualifications for such a membership without reference or application, however indirect, to particular individuals. We should refrain from influencing the opinion of others, of canvassing for any particular individual, but should stress the necessity of getting fully acquainted with the qualifications of membership referred to in our Beloved’s Tablets and of learning more about one another through direct, personal experience rather than through the reports and opinions of our friends.
4.2.4. Statistics in Context
Statistics on the participation of women on Bahá’í institutions are compiled from time to time by Bahá’í agencies, including the Bahá’í International Community’s United Nations Office for the Advancement of Women, and have been published on occasion in the annual Bahá’í World year book. However, caution should be observed in their interpretation, because of the small size of the Bahá’í communities in most countries, and the differences in the traditional attitudes toward the participation of women in the various cultures represented in the worldwide community. It would also be improper to use these results in an attempt to ensure that the composition of institutions is evenly balanced between the sexes, since believers are enjoined to select those best qualified to serve, irrespective of their sex. The Faith does not seek to promote the advancement of women through an artificial endeavour to achieve parity, but rather through a fundamental transformation of values and understanding coupled with the creation of opportunities and encouragement for the development of talents and capabilities.
4.2.5. Bahá’í Focus on the Advancement and Participation of Women
The contribution of women to social, economic and cultural development is paramount. As the primary educators of children, women must themselves be educated and receive literacy training. As wives and mothers, as members of the professions, as farmers, as stewards of the health and well-being of families, and as members of Bahá’í administrative institutions, women must be welcomed into full partnership with men in consultative decision-making and in guiding the progress of their communities.
4.2.6. Persecution in Iran
4.3. Discourse
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- women’s participation on the elected councils that govern Bahá’í community life;
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- ways in which Bahá’í institutions encourage women to participate in Bahá’í community life; and
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- strategies used by Bahá’í institutions to change attitudes toward women
Though traditionally women do not take a real role in decision-making, Bahá’í women are elected to local and national Bahá’í administrative posts. As they serve in these positions, they educate other women.(Samoa)
… the equality of women had been enhanced by wider administrative experience (and that women are both) included in most of the national and regional committees appointed by the National Spiritual Assembly and also serve on many Local assemblies.(Nigeria)
Women participate ‘without restriction in consultation and decision-making’ at both the local and national levels: ‘Women both vote and are elected’.(Paraguay)
Recent statistics show substantial participation of women on Bahá’í administrative bodies. In 1988, 27% of those elected to serve on national governing councils were women. In 1989, 25% of the members of continental advisory boards and 29% of their auxiliary boards were women. At the 1988 International Convention, plenary sessions involving members of over 140 National Bahá’í Councils were chaired by women members of the advisory boards.
Men Only on the Universal House of Justice
O ye Men of Justice! Be ye, in the realm of God, shepherds unto His sheep and guard them from the ravening wolves that have appeared in disguise, even as ye would guard your own sons. Thus exhorteth you the Counsellor, the Faithful.
The men of God’s House of Justice have been charged with the affairs of the people. They, in truth, are the Trustees of God among His servants and the daysprings of authority in His countries.
As regards the constitution of the House of Justice, Bahá’u’lláh addresses the men. He says: ‘O ye men of the House of Justice!’ But when its members are to be elected, the right which belongs to women, so far as their voting and their voice is concerned, is indisputable.
Know thou, O handmaid,10 that in the sight of Bahá, women are accounted the same as men, and God hath created all humankind in His own image, and after His own likeness. That is, men and women alike are the revealers of His names and attributes, and from the spiritual viewpoint there is no difference between them …The House of Justice, however, according to the explicit text of the Law of God, is confined to men; this for a wisdom of the Lord God’s, which will erelong be made manifest as clearly as the sun at high noon.
According to the ordinances of the Faith of God, women are the equals of men in all rights save only that of membership on the Universal House of Justice, for as hath been stated in the text of the Book, both the head and the members of the House of Justice are men. However, in all other bodies, such as the Temple Construction Committee, the Teaching Committee, the Spiritual Assembly, and in charitable and scientific associations, women share equally in all rights with men.(quoted in Universal House of Justice 1988a)
It has been elucidated in the writings of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi that, while the membership of the Universal House of Justice is confined to men, both women and men are eligible for election to Secondary and Local Houses of Justice (currently designated as National and Local Spiritual Assemblies).
… in face of the categorical pronouncements in Bahá’í Scripture establishing the equality of men and women, the ineligibility of women for membership of the Universal House of Justice does not constitute evidence of the superiority of men over women. It must also be borne in mind that women are not excluded from any other international institution of the Faith. They are found among the ranks of the Hands of the Cause. They serve as members of the International Teaching Centre and as Continental Counsellors. And, there is nothing in the Text to preclude the participation of women in such future international bodies as the Supreme Tribunal.
People must just accept the fact that women are not eligible to the International House of Justice. As the Master says the wisdom of this will be known in the future, we can only accept, believing it is right, but not able to give an explanation calculated to silence an ardent feminist!
5. Theme D: Violence against Women and Girls
5.1. Bahá’í Texts
The light of men is Justice. Quench it not with the contrary winds of oppression and tyranny. The purpose of justice is the appearance of unity among men.
Ye have been forbidden in the Book of God to engage in contention and conflict, to strike another, or to commit similar acts whereby hearts and souls may be saddened.
… in view of ‘Abdu’l-Bahá’s exhortation that each member of the family must uphold the rights of the others … it [is] clear that violence in the family is contrary to the spirit of the Faith and a practice to be condemned. It is clearly evident from the Bahá’í teachings that no husband should subject his wife to abuse of any kind, much less to violence; such a reprehensible action is the antithesis of the relationship of mutual respect and equality enjoined by the Bahá’í Writings—a relationship governed by the principles of Bahá’í consultation and totally devoid of the use of force to compel obedience to one’s will. Of course, the prohibition against subjecting one’s marriage partner to physical force applies to women, as well.
Among the signs of moral downfall in the declining moral order are the high incidence of violence within the family, the increase of degrading and cruel treatment of spouses and children, and the spread of sexual abuse. It is essential that the members of the community of the Greatest Name take the utmost care not to be drawn into acceptance of such practices because of their prevalence. They must be ever mindful of their obligations to exemplify a new way of life distinguished by its respect for the dignity and rights of all people, by its exalted moral tone, and by its freedom from oppression and from all forms of abuse.
The use of force by the physically strong against the weak, as a means of imposing one’s will and fulfilling one’s desires, is a flagrant transgression of the Bahá’í teachings. There can be no justification for anyone compelling another, through the use of force or through the threat of violence, to do that to which the other person is not inclined. ‘Abdu’l-Bahá has written, ‘O ye lovers of God! In this, the cycle of Almighty God, violence and force, constraint and oppression, are one and all condemned.’ Let those who, driven by their passions or by their inability to exercise discipline in the control of their anger, might be tempted to inflict violence on another human being, be mindful of the condemnation of such disgraceful behaviour by the Revelation of Bahá’u’lláh.
True equality between men and women will not be established unless prevailing conceptions of power that dominate contemporary thought are seriously questioned and fundamentally redefined … current conceptions of power tend to focus on the capacity to pursue one’s self-interests, to compete effectively, to get others to act according to one’s will, to dominate, to manipulate and to prevail over or against others … Understood and enacted in these terms, abuses of power and the unequal distribution of material sources and instruments of power have resulted in innumerable hardships and great suffering for women historically and into the present day… A reconceptualization of power in this sense requires a broadened appreciation of the sources of power available to humanity, which include the limitless and generative powers of unity, love, justice and equity, knowledge, humility, integrity and truthfulness—powers humanity has been learning to draw upon over the centuries. Expressions of power emanating from these sources can be seen in the capacity to work creatively and constructively with others in the pursuit of common goals, the capacity to cooperate, and the capacity to transform social reality to reflect spiritual truths such as the equality of women and men. As we move beyond the material struggle to exercise power over or against others, and we develop the capacity to draw on these other sources of power accessible to every human being, we activate greater forms of individual and collective agency and create new possibilities for the well-being of women and men.
5.2. Praxis
5.3. Discourse
Educating women and girls is critically important, but the current power imbalance between men and women can prevent a woman from acting in her own interest. Indeed, experience has shown that educating women without educating the men in their lives may put the women at greater risk of violence. Efforts are needed, therefore, to educate both boys and girls to respect themselves and one another. A culture of mutual respect will improve not only the self-esteem of women and girls, but the self-esteem of men and boys as well, which will lead toward more responsible sexual behaviour’.(BIC 2001)
… the challenge now before the international community is how to create the social, material and structural conditions in which women and girls can develop to their full potential. The creation of such conditions will involve not only deliberate attempts to change the legal, political and economic structures of society, but, equally importantly, will require the transformation of individuals, men and women, boys and girls, whose values, in different ways, sustain exploitative patterns of behaviour.
5.4. What Do We Take from This?
6. A Brief Summary
Funding
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
1 | Lil Osborn describes in her book Religion and Relevance the intertwining strands of some of the social movements of the late 19th and early 20th centuries and discusses the relationship of the Bahá’ís and with those associated with the religion with these movements (Osborn 2014). |
2 | The editors of Star of the West note that Dodge’s article ‘was given to all of the New York newspapers and, through the Associated Press, was sent, though boiled down considerably, throughout the world’ (Dodge 1912, p. 3). |
3 | The Kenosha, Wisconsin, Assembly wrote to ‘Abdu’l-Bahá in 1910 asking whether it should dissolve its all-male board and re-elect one including women. In March 1911, ‘Abdu’l-Bahá responded to them by stating that as Kenosha had a spiritual assembly for men, it could now form one for women (Dahl 1992, pp. 21–2). It is not known whether Kenosha took up this advice. However, Dahl notes that by 1917 women were serving on the Kenosha Board. |
4 | A modern translation was made at the Bahá’í World Centre in 1977 (quoted in Universal House of Justice 1988a, no. 52). |
5 | The first Bahá’í group on the European continent was established in Paris in 1899 by May Bolles (Stockman 1995, p. 151; Shoghi Effendi 1995, p. 259) and by 1901–2 numbered some 25 to 30 Bahá’ís. The first local spiritual assembly was formed in 1923 (Blackmer 1993). |
6 | The first local spiritual assemblies in the United Kingdom were elected in 1922, in London, Manchester and Bournemouth. The next local spiritual assemblies were not elected until 21 April 1939, at Bradford and Torquay (M. Momen 1997, Religious Studies Homepage). |
7 | Currently the legal age for marriage for females is 13 (and as young as 9, with a guardian’s and court’s approval, see (UK Government GOV.UK 2022), which is significantly below the age of 18 that UNICEF, and feminists, advocate to prevent forced child marriage, that harms the well-being of girls (UNICEF 2022). For comparison, the age of maturity of Bahá’í children is 15 and engagement and marriage before this age is forbidden. (Bahá’u’lláh 1992, pp. 133–4) |
8 | I was a speaker at a synodal conference on 26 November 2022 at Ushaw, Durham, sponsored by the National Board of Catholic Women for England and Wales, ‘Women at the Periphery taking Centre Stage’, that was examining the issue of women’s participation in the church (National Board of Catholic Women 2022). |
9 | The sayings and practice of the Prophet Muhammad, transmitted orally over several generations before being written down. They are regarded as a source of holy law alongside the Quran. |
10 | A term often used in Bahá’í texts to refer to Bahá’í women. Men are often referred to as servants. |
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Year | Men | Women | Notes |
---|---|---|---|
1922 | 3 | 7 | London/All England |
1922 | 3 | 6 | London; 58 women, 19 men in London Bahá’í community |
13 October 1923 to 10 May 1924 | 5 CV JS | 4 JS T | First election NSA of the British Isles |
1924 | 5 C V JS | 4 JS T | The same man is C and JS; 2 × replacements W to M, M to W |
1925 | 5 CV JS T | 4 JS | The same man is C, T and JS |
1926 | 4 C JS T | 5 V JS | The same man was C, T and JS; in this year 9 ‘regular’ members were elected and 10 ‘substitutes’. The figures are for the regulars. |
1927 | 5 CST | 5 VST | 10—two had tied for 9th place and both served |
1928 | 4 CTA | 5 VS | 2 × bi-elections M to M and M to M |
1929 | 2 | 7 CVSTA | resignation of W, possible by-election, result unclear |
1930 | 4 | 5 CVSTA | |
1931 | 3 CT | 6 VS | |
1932 | 4 (3) VA | 5 (6) CST | by-election M to W |
1933 | 4 | 4 CVSA ?co-T | 9th member thought to be a W; S and co-T the same woman |
1934 | 5 | 4 CVSTA | S and T same woman |
1935 | 4 V | 5 CSTA | |
1936 | 6 VSA | 3 CT | |
1937 | 6 VS | 3 CT | by-election W to W |
1938 | 5 VS | 4 CT | |
1939 | 5 VS | 4 CT | by-election M to M |
1940 | 5 CVST | 4 A | C and T same man |
1941 | 5 CVT | 4 S | C and T same man 2 × by-elections M to M, M to M |
1942 | 5 CTA | 4 VS | |
1943 | 4 CT | 5 VS | |
1944 | 3 CT | 6 VS | |
1945 | 2 (3) T | 7 (6) CVS | by election W to M |
1946 | 4 CVST | 5 A | by-election M to M; VC and T same man |
1947 | 5 CVSA | 4 T | by-election W to W |
1948 | 5 CVSA | 4 T | |
1949 | 5 CVS | 4 T | by-election W to W |
1950 | 5 CVST | 4 R | |
1951 | 6 CST | 3 VR | 3 × by elections WtoM, MtoM, MtoW |
1952 | 6 (5) CVST | 3 (4) | 2 × by elections W to W, M to W |
1953 | 5 CVST | 4 | |
1954 | 5 CVST | 4 | 3 × by-elections MtoM, MtoM, WtoW |
1955 | 5 (CS?) | 4 (VTA?) | no officers’ list |
1956 | 6 CVTS | 3 | VT same man |
1957 | 6 CVTS | 3 | VT same man |
1958 | 6 CVTS | 3 | VT same man |
1959 | 6 (7) CVSA | 3 (2) T | 3 x by-elections M to M, M to M, W to M |
1960 | 7 | 2 | no officers’ list |
1961 | 7 | 2 | no officers’ list by-election M to M |
1962 | 7 | 2 | no officers’ list |
1963 | 6 | 3 | no officers’ list |
1964 | 6 | 3 | no officers’ list; by-election M to M |
1965 | 7 | 2 | no officers’ list |
1966 | 7 CVT | 2 S | |
1967 | 8 CVT | 1 S | |
1968 | 8 CVT | 1 S | |
1969 | 8 CVT | 1 S | by-election M to M |
1970 | 8 | 1 | no officers’ list |
1971 | 8 CVS | 1 T | |
1972 | 8 CVS | 1 T | first election NSA of the United Kingdom; by-election M to W |
1973 | 7 CVS | 2 T | |
1974 | 7 CVS | 2 T | |
1975 | 6 CS | 3 VT | |
1976 | 6 CVS | 3 T | |
1977 | 6 CVS | 3 T | by-election M to M |
1978 | 6 CVS | 3 T | |
1979 | 7 CVS | 2 T | by-election M to M |
1980 | 7 CVS | 2 T | |
1981 | 7 CV | 2 ST | by-election M to M |
1982 | 6 CV | 3 ST | |
1983 | 6 CVT | 3 S | |
1984 | 6 CV | 3 ST | |
1985 | 6 CVS | 3 T | |
1986 | 6 CVS | 3 T | |
1987 | 7 CVS | 2 T | |
1988 | 7 CVS | 2 T | by-election M to M |
1989 | 7 CVS | 2 T | |
1990 | 7 VS | 2 C T? | |
1991 | 7 VS | 2 CT | by-election M to M |
1992 | 7 VS | 2 CT | |
1993 | 7 VS | 2 CT | |
1994 | 6 VS | 3 CT | |
1995 | 6 VS | 3 CT | |
1996 | 6 VS | 3 CT | |
1997 | 6 VS | 3 CT | |
1998 | 6 VS | 3 CT | by-election: M to M |
1999 | 6 SV(T) | 3 CT | by-election: W to W |
2000 | 6 CVS | 3 T | |
2001 | 6 VSA | 3 CT | |
2002 | 6 VSA | 3 CT | |
2003 | 6 VSA | 3 CT | |
2004 | 6 VSA | 3 CT | by-election W to W |
2005 | 5 (6) VST | 4 (3) C | Sec External Aff—M by-election W to M |
2006 | 6 VST | 3 C | by-election: M to M Sec External Aff—M |
2007 | 6 VST | 3 C | Sec External Aff—M |
2008 | 6 VST | 3 C | Sec External Aff—M |
2009 | 6 VST | 3 C | by-election: M to M |
2010 | 5 VST | 4 C | |
2011 | 5 VST | 4 C | |
2012 | 5 VST | 4 C | by-election: W to W |
2013 | 5 VST | 4 C | |
2014 | 5 (4) ST | 4 (5) CV | by-election: M to W |
2015 | 5 CST | 4 V | |
2016 | 5 (6) CSTA | 4 (3) V | By-elections ×2 WtoM C and A same person |
2017 | 6 CST | 3 V | |
2018 | 6 VST | 3 C | |
2019 | 5 (6) CST | 4 (3) V | by-election W to M |
2020 | 6 CST | 3 V | |
2021 | 5 (6) CST | 4 (3) V | by-election W to M |
2022 * | 7 CST | 2 V |
Year | Men | Women | Comments |
---|---|---|---|
1909 | 6 | 3 | Bahai Temple Unity |
1910 | 7 | 2 | |
1911 | 7 | 2 | |
1912 | 7 | 2 | |
1913 | 6 | 2 | as reported |
1914 | 7 PST | 2 VF | |
1915 | 7 PST | 2 VF | |
1916 | 7 PST | 2 VF | |
1917 | 6 C | 3 | |
1918 | 6 PST | 3 VF | |
1919 | 7 | 2 | |
1920 | 6 | 3 | |
1921 | 7 | 2 | |
1922 | no records | ||
1923 | 6 PST | 3 VF | |
1924 | 5 CS At | 4 T | |
1925 | 5 CS At | 4 T | First election NSA of US and Canada |
1926 | 7 CS | 2 T | |
1927 | 6 CVST | 3 | |
1928 | 6 CVST | 3 | |
1929 | 7 CVST | 2 | |
1930 | 7 CVST | 2 | |
1931 | 7 CVST | 2 | |
1932 | 7 S | 2 | other officers unknown |
1933 | ST | other records unknown | |
1934 | CST | other records unknown | |
1935 | no records | ||
1936 | 8 CVST | 1 | |
1937 | S | other records unknown | |
1938 | CS | other records unknown | |
1939 | 7 CSTR | 2 | |
1940 | records not found | ||
1941 | 7 CSTR | 2 | |
1942 | 7 CVSTR | 2 | |
1943 | 7 CVSTR | 2 | |
1944 | 7 CVSTR | 2 | |
1945 | 7 CVST | 2 R | |
1946 | 5 VST | 4 CR | |
1947 | 5 VST | 4 CR | |
1948 | 5 VST | 4 CR | NSA of the United States |
1949 | 5 VST | 4 CR | |
1950 | 5 CST | 4 VR | |
1951 | 5 CVST | 4 R | |
1952 | 5 CST | 4 VR | |
1953 | In this year 2 M and 3 W ‘pioneered’—no records found | ||
1954 | 6 CVST | 3 A | |
1955 | 6 CVT | 3 AR | |
1956 | 5 CVST | 4 AR | |
1957 | 5 CVST | 4 AR | |
1958 | 5 CVST | 4 AR | |
1959 | 5 CVST | 4 AR | |
1960 | 6 CVST | 3 AR | |
1961 | 6 CVST | 3 AR | |
1962 | 5 CVST | 4 AR | |
1963 | 5 CVST | 4 AR | |
1964 | 6 CVST | 3 AR | |
1965 | 6 CVST | 3 AR | |
1966 | 6 CVST | 3 AR | |
1967 | 6 CVST | 3 AR | |
1968 | 6 CVST | 3 AR | |
1969 | 6 CVST | 3 | |
1970 | 6 CVST | 3 | |
1971 | 5 CVS | 4 AT | |
1972 | 5 CVS | 4 TA | |
1973 | 5 CVS | 4 TA | |
1974 | 6 CVS | 3 TA | |
1975 | 6 CVS | 3 TA | |
1976 | 6 CVS | 3 T | |
1977 | 6 CVS | 3 TA | |
1978 | 6 CSV | 3 TA (admin) A(teaching) | |
1979 | 6 CVS | 3 TA | |
1980 | 6 CVS | 3 TA | |
1981 | 5 CVS | 4 TA | |
1982 | 5 CVS | 4 TA | |
1983 | 5 CS | 4 VT | |
1984 | 5 CVS | 4 T | |
1985 | 5 CVS | 4 T | |
1986 | 7 | 2 | |
1987 | 7 | 2 | |
1988 | 6 | 3 | |
1989 | 6 | 3 | |
1990 | 6 | 3 | |
1991 | 6 | 3 | |
1992 | 6 | 3 | |
1993 | 5 | 4 | |
1994 | 5 | 4 | |
1995 | 5 | 4 | |
1996 | 5 | 4 | |
1997 | 5 | 4 | |
1998 | 6 | 3 | |
1999 | 6 | 3 | |
2000 | 6 | 3 | |
2001 | 5 | 4 | |
2002 | 5 | 4 | |
2003 | 5 | 4 | |
2004 | 5 | 4 | |
2005 | 5 | 4 | |
2006 | 5 | 4 | |
2007 | 5 S | 4 | |
2008 | 5 S | 4 | |
2009 | 5 S | 4 | |
2010 | 5 S | 4 | |
2011 | 4 S | 5 | |
2012 | 4 S | 5 | |
2013 | 4 S | 5 | |
2014 | 4 S | 5 | |
2015 | 5 S | 4 | |
2016 | 4 S | 5 | |
2017 | 4 S | 5 | |
2018 | 5 S | 4 | |
2019 | 5 S | 4 | |
2020 | 5 S | 4 | |
2021 | 5 CS | 4 T | |
2022 * | 5 S | 4 |
Name of National (or Local) Spiritual Assembly | Date First Formed | Number of Women Elected (out of 9) onto First NSA |
---|---|---|
Brazil | 1961 | 4 (stats for 1962–1963) |
Chile | 1961 | 4 |
Gilbert and Ellice Islands (later Kiribati) | 1967 | 3 |
Fiji | 1970 | 2 |
Samoa | 1970 | 5 |
Trinidad and Tobago | 1971 | 4 |
First LSA in Greenland formed, in Nuuk | 1979 | 3 |
Bermuda | 1981 | 4 |
Cook Islands | 1985 | 5 |
Guinea Bissau | 1989 | ?3 |
LSA of Ishqabad (reformed after 60 years) | 1989 | 3 |
Macau | 1989 | 4 |
Czechoslovakia | 1991 | 4 |
Romania | 1991 | 3 |
Soviet Union | 1991 | 2 |
West Leeward Islands | 1991 | 6 |
Angola | 1992 | 2 |
Azerbaijan | 1992 | 2 |
Central Asia | 1992 | 3 |
Greenland | 1992 | 5 |
Hungary | 1992 | 4 |
Niger | 1992 | 1 |
Poland | 1992 | 4 |
Kazakhstan | 1994 | 6 |
Mongolia | 1994 | 3 |
Tajikistan | 1994 | 3 |
Belarus | 1995 | 6 |
Georgia | 1995 | 2 |
Sicily | 1995 | 2 |
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Momen, W. The Bahá’í Faith and the Equality, Rights, and Advancement of Women: A Survey of Principles, Praxis, and Discourse. Religions 2023, 14, 491. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040491
Momen W. The Bahá’í Faith and the Equality, Rights, and Advancement of Women: A Survey of Principles, Praxis, and Discourse. Religions. 2023; 14(4):491. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040491
Chicago/Turabian StyleMomen, Wendi. 2023. "The Bahá’í Faith and the Equality, Rights, and Advancement of Women: A Survey of Principles, Praxis, and Discourse" Religions 14, no. 4: 491. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel14040491