The Obstetric Connection: Midwives and Weasels within and beyond Minoan Crete
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Practices Relating to Midwifery at the Minoan Peak Sanctuary of Petsophas
2.1. An Extraordinary Corpus of Gynaecological Votives
- Figurines of clearly pregnant/periparturient females (Rutkowski 1991, p. 91; Morris and Peatfield 2014, pp. 51, 60): One displays upraised arms (Myres 1902–1903, p. 370, Pl. 11, n° 22), an auspicious gesture of birth in later Greek iconography.2 Other figurines are in traditional birth positions, squatting or sitting with splayed legs and/or incised vulvas. A birthing figurine with a bottom peg to be wedged in a stool (see Figure 1a) recalls the parturient figurines on birth stools (see Figure 1b) occurring with shells in the Chalcolithic deposit from Kissonerga-Mosphilia (Cyprus, c. 3000 BCE), which may well be the ritual kit of the community’s midwife, as suggested by Goring (1991, p. 95).
- Figurines with splayed legs seated on stools (Myres 1902–1903, pp. 373–74), probably alluding to parturition despite showing no bulging belly; in the Iron Age childbirth models from Eileithyia’s cave at Tsoutsouros (southern Crete), not all the labouring women assisted by the midwife are visibly pregnant (see Kanta 2011a, pp. 117, n° 114).
- Seated figurines with spread legs not visibly pregnant.
- Models of four-legged stools detached from figurines (see Figure 1a) (Myres 1902–1903, p. 374).
- Anatomical models of female hips and lower bodies with splayed legs and/or incised pubic triangles/vulvas (see Figure 2a) (Rutkowski 1991, Pls. 43–44).
- Anatomical models of breasted female torsos.
- Figurines of swaddled babies (see Figure 2b), to date unique in the context of Minoan peak sanctuaries, and among the earliest testimonies of the ancestral practice of wrapping newborns in cloth, still performed by the last Cretan folk midwives (praktikes mames) in the 1970s.
2.2. Kalogennousa: The Intriguing Weasel Models from Petsophas
2.3. Telling Names: The Lexicon of the Weasel
2.4. Mustelids, Brides and Midwives: Ethnographic and Historical Sources
2.5. Galinthias, the Oxytocic Weasel
3. Mustelids Associated with Ritual Practices beyond Minoan Crete
4. Unravelling Evidence for a Minoan Midwifery Tradition
4.1. Petsophas-Palaikastro and Juktas
4.2. From the Temple Repositories of Knossos to the Xeste 3 Frescoes at Akrotiri (Thera)
4.2.1. Figurines of Female Snake-Handlers
4.2.2. Deer Antlers
4.2.3. Seashells
4.2.4. Depictions of Robes and Girdles
4.2.5. Medicinal Plants
5. The Materia Medica of Minoan Midwives and Crete’s Identity as a Foremost Drug-Bearer
6. Conclusions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
1 | The publication of Davaras’ 1970s excavation has been entrusted to Alan Peatfield and Christine Morris and forms part of the East Cretan Peak Sanctuaries Project (ECPSP), on which the present author is a collaborator. The Petsophas material in this paper will be more fully catalogued and discussed as part of the ECPSP publications. |
2 | This gesture, characteristic of Eileithyia, was deemed to convey divine forces easing delivery (Farnell 1896, pp. 613–14; Baur 1902; Bettini 2013, p. 84). |
3 | Up to the 1950s, folk midwives were by far the predominant healers in Crete (Clark 2011, p. 21, n. 50; Allbaugh 1953, p. 158). According to elderly villagers who remember the last praktikes mames, they were general practitioners and often also veterinarians. |
4 | The figurines may depict martens. The term weasel is occasionally employed in this paper to generically denote animals of the weasel family, namely mustelids. |
5 | Bindings/knots were believed to obstruct delivery (Bettini 2013, pp. 69–82). |
6 | The figurines from Juktas, on exhibit at the Heraklion Archaeological Museum, display both the same bodily position and hairdo as the specimens from Petsophas. |
7 | The Late Bronze Age sanctuary of Phylakopi (c. 13th c. BCE) on the island of Milos yielded a dog figurine resembling the puppies from Juktas (Karetsou and Koehl 2014, p. 334), beech marten bones, tortoise shells, and the probable image of a goddess with upraised arms (Psi type figurine), the so-called Lady of Phylakopi (Renfrew 1985, pp. 325–26, 372–73, 479). |
8 | I thank Alexandra Karetsou for mentioning the tortoise votives from Juktas in the discussion following the Online Annual Open Lecture of the Irish Institute of Hellenic Studies at Athens on 29th April 2021, “The Petsophas Peak Sanctuary: A Prelude” by Alan Peatfield. |
9 | For a full discussion of the finds from the Ramesseum deposit having a bearing on female therapeutics, see (Zimmermann Kuoni 2019, pp. 296–98). |
10 | For instance, see the statue of Bes from the temple of Nectanebo (Serapeum of Memphis, 4th c. BCE) exhibited at the Louvre Museum (N437, Room 317). |
11 | The Liturgy to Nintud, or Kesh Temple Hymn, one of the two oldest known pieces of literature, is an ode to the temple erected at Kesh to Nintu(d), the midwife of the gods who, according to the Atrahasis Epic, creates humans from clay. In the myth “Enki and the World Order” she is portrayed with her medical emblems including the obstetric knife. Nevertheless, Nintu is generally regarded as the Sumerian ‘mother’ goddess, leading to paradoxical interpretations of the sources (Zimmermann Kuoni 2019, p. 97–99), which recall the conflicting modern division of Eileithyia’s skills and roles discussed above. |
12 | On the walls of the corridor leading to staircase 8 one of the mature women depicted in procession carries a bunch of roses, another one a bunch of lilies, a flower also represented on the bodice of yet another mature woman and elsewhere at Xeste 3 (Vlachopoulos 2008, pp. 451, 453–4). |
13 | The so-called Wounded Woman in Room 3a wears an iris-shaped hairpin (Doumas 1992, p. 142 Fig. 106). |
14 | Vitex is depicted in Room 9 at Xeste 3. English publications render the plant as osier (Doumas 1992, Fig. 151; Vlachopoulos 2008, p. 454, Figs. 41.41, 41.42). |
15 | On other gynaecological plants associated with the cult of Demeter, see (Nixon 1995) and (Zimmermann Kuoni 2019, pp. 397–98). |
16 | Other pharmacological agents likely associated with this midwifery tradition are squills, pine, myrtle, and mastic, the resin from the terebinth and lentisk (Zimmermann Kuoni 2019, pp. 390–96). |
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Zimmermann Kuoni, S. The Obstetric Connection: Midwives and Weasels within and beyond Minoan Crete. Religions 2021, 12, 1056. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12121056
Zimmermann Kuoni S. The Obstetric Connection: Midwives and Weasels within and beyond Minoan Crete. Religions. 2021; 12(12):1056. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12121056
Chicago/Turabian StyleZimmermann Kuoni, Simone. 2021. "The Obstetric Connection: Midwives and Weasels within and beyond Minoan Crete" Religions 12, no. 12: 1056. https://doi.org/10.3390/rel12121056