Can the Global Adoption of Genetically Improved Farmed Fish Increase Beyond 10%, and How?
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Biological and Technical Constraints
2.1. Domestication
2.2. Inbreeding
2.3. Selective Breeding
2.4. Breeding Programs
3. Perceived Needs and Interests of Aquaculture Stakeholders in China, Vietnam and Malaysia
3.1. Material and Methods
3.2. Results
3.2.1. Public Policies
3.2.2. Human Resources
3.2.3. Business Strategies and Challenges
4. Discussion
4.1. Human Resources
4.2. Initiation of Breeding Programs
4.3. Accumulation and Dissemination of Genetic Progress
5. Conclusions and Recommendations
- -
- Financial support of the breeding nucleus operation will usually be needed, at least during the initial five to ten generations of selection, and, in particular, for species with long generation intervals. The early phase support should prioritize established aquaculture species with large production volumes, such as carps, that are not easily subject to investment from private breeders due to long generation interval and delayed profit.
- -
- Training of more people in selective animal breeding technology should be prioritized at all levels, including government officers, university staff, breeding nucleus operators, hatchery operators, and grow-out farmers. Collaboration between different research groups in genetics (institutes and universities) and scholars within the fields of aquaculture and livestock breeding should be encouraged.
- -
- If the private sector is expected to engage in selective breeding and genetic improvement of aquaculture stocks in less prosperous economies, development of appropriate business models are probably more important than legal systems to ensure fair benefit sharing between the breeding, multiplier and grow-out operators. Research is also needed to incorporate private breeders, cooperatives and small-scale farmers into traditional and ‘guanxi’ business management. Experience suggests opportunities for investing through cooperatives and other producer organizations.
Acknowledgements
Author Contributions
Conflicts of Interests
Appendix
A. Questionnaires
A.1. Questionnaire for Fish Farmers
- Personal information
- What is your role/position?Farm owner, Farm operator/manager
- If employed by company/institution, is your organization (employer)profit, non-profit, public, private, cooperate, MNC, large national, SME, research
- Name of organization, employer, location
- What is your background (education, training and work experience)?
- Farm characteristics
- 5.
- What fish species is (are) being cultured on your farm?How important is the production of these species in your country or region (percent of total aquaculture production)? <20%, 20%–50% , 50%–80% or >80%
- 6.
- What is the total production on the farm?Big (tonnes per year), medium (tonnes per year), small scale (tonnes per year), household farmers (kg per year or number of fish with average size)
- 7.
- Is the farming full time work?Or part time work combined with other household income?Is more than 50% of production on the farm sold?
- 8.
- What is the annual turnover (sales from production) on the farm?(Figures in currencies representing low, medium and large farm with options to check appropriate interval).
- 9.
- What are the annual running costs (USD), and what are the main cost factors (e.g., labour, feed, power)? (to reveal whether it is intensive (high input) or extensive (low-input))
- 10.
- Did you have disease outbreaks last years?
- 11.
- What type of feed is used?
- Fish Breeding
- 12.
- How was/is the fish or seed of your breeders accessed?Own breeding (integration), from private hatcheries, from public hatcheries, from middle men.From hatchery every year, from hatchery every second year, from hatchery more than two years ago, from wild fish population last year, from wild fish population two years ago, from wild fish population more than two years ago
- 13.
- If you carry out fish breeding and reproduction on your farm, how is this carried out?Mass spawning, pair matings, artificial mating
- 14.
- Do you select brood fish yourself? If so, for how long has your current fish population been selected (no. of generations and years of selection)?How many broodfish do you select?What trait(s) do you select for and how is the trait measured or recorded?Body weight, other, please specifyMeasured by scale or visuallyWhy were these chosen?
- 15.
- What are the main challenges and problems for breeding the fish today?
- Fish seed
- 16.
- How is/was the fish seed disseminated to you?As sexually mature brood fish, fingerlings, fertilized roe
- 17.
- What is the price of fish seed?
- 18.
- What is the price of harvested fish ex farm (price to farmer)?What is the harvest weight?
- 19.
- What are the costs of the seed in percentage of all costs?
- 20.
- What quality or traits do you consider most important? Is price most important?
- 21.
- Are you interested in genetically improved fish? Is it easy or hard to provide genetically improved seed of your interest?
- 22.
- What characteristics of the seed would you prefer? Please assign which characteristic you prefer the most and least of the following (1–7):All male, genetic quality (higher growth, survival, carcass yield, disease resistance), standardized size, price, service, education/training, DNA information or technology
- 23.
- Are there more than one competing hatchery or middle man, and how competitive are they with respect to price, quality and service? Are these public, private or cooperative programs, owned by non-profit or profit organizations?
- 24.
- What price premium are you willing to pay for seed giving 20% faster growth?<10%, 10%–20%, 20%–30%, >30%
- 25.
- What price premium are you willing to pay for seed requiring 20% less feed to reach harvest size?<10%, 10%–20%, 20%–30%, >30%
- 26.
- What price premium are you willing to pay for seed with higher disease resistance such that the survival is increased with 20%?<10%, 10%–20%, 20%–30%, >30%
- Recommendations
- 27.
- What are your recommendations to governmental bodies, other public organizations and private actors and/or investors to facilitate new breeding programs and to increase dissemination and marketing of genetically improved fish to farmers?
- 28.
- Other comments?
A.2. Questionnaire for Hatchery Operators
- Personal information
- What is your position?
- Name of Organization, employer, location
- Is your organization (employer): Profit, non-profit, public, private, cooperate, MNC, large, national, SME, research, industry
- What is your background (education, training and work experience)?
- Breeding program
- 5.
- For what species is (are) the hatchery operating and disseminating in your jurisdiction or country?How big is the grow out production of these species in your country or region? <20%, 20%–50%, 50%–80%, or >80%.
- 6.
- How was/is the fish or seed of for your breeders accessed?Species?From external breeding program every year, from external breeding program every second year, from external breeding program more than two years ago, from wild fish population last year, from wild fish population two years ago, from wild fish population more than two years ago
- 7.
- What breeding strategy do you apply?Mass spawning, pair matings, artificial mating, crossing of different strains
- 8.
- Do you select brood fish? If so,For how long has your fish population been selected (no. of generations and years of selection)? How many broodfish do you select? What trait(s) do you select for and how is it recorded/tested? Body weight, other, please specify, why were these chosen?
- 9.
- How many families are produced and selected among in your breeding population?
- 10.
- Are you applying any DNA technology or chromosome manipulation in your breeding program?If not, would it be useful, and if so how/why?
- 11.
- How big is the genetic gain of your fish per generation and/or year (if available)?
- 12.
- How is the breeding program being funded or supported today?Through income from sales onlyPublic support onlyThrough both sales and public support
- 13.
- How big are the investments made for the current breeding/selection operation (USD)?
- 14.
- What are the annual running costs (USD), and what are the main cost factors (e.g., labour, feed, power)?
- 15.
- How much are you willing to pay for seed/breeders giving 20% faster growing fish in the farms while the other traits are not changed?<10%, 10%–20%, 20%–30%, >30%
- 16.
- How much are you willing to pay for seed/breeders requiring 20% less feed to reach harvest size in the farms while the other traits are not changed?<10%, 10%–20%, 20%–30%, >30%
- 17.
- How much are you willing to pay for seed/breeders with higher disease resistance such that the fish survival at harvest on the farm is increased with 20% while the other traits are not changed?<10%, 10%–20%, 20%–30%, >30%
- 18.
- What are the main limitations, challenges and problems for running the hatchery today?
- Dissemination program
- 19.
- How are the fish disseminated to the farmers, through other hatcheries, middle men or direct to farmers? What infrastructure is needed for this?
- 20.
- How is the fish disseminated?As sexually mature brood fish, Fingerlings, fertilized roe.
- 21.
- What are the costs of the dissemination?
- 22.
- What is the price of fish seed to grow out farmer?
- 23.
- How many fry are disseminated per year?To how many farms or other hatcheries do you disseminate?
- 24.
- What type of grow-out farmers buy your seed?What is their training/education, intensity (high or low input) and technology level?
Percentage of customers Education Intensity/technology Big …………… .. … Medium …………… … … Small scale …………… … … Household farmers ……………. …. … - 25.
- What quality or traits are the farmers requesting most? Is price more important to farmers?
- 26.
- How big is the demand from farmers? Is it easy or hard to market the genetically improved seed? Is all produced seed sold?
- 27.
- What would make it easier to market the seed? (e.g., all male, quality, standardization, price, service, education/training of middle men and farmers), DNA information or technology)
- 28.
- Are there competing hatcheries, and how competitive are these with respect to price, quality and service? Are these public, private or cooperative programs, owned by non-profit or profit organizations?
- 29.
- What price premium would you expect that farmers will pay for seed giving 20% faster growth?<10%, 10%–20%, 20%–30%, >30%
- 30.
- What price premium would you expect that farmers will pay for seed requiring 20% less feed to reach harvest size?<10%, 10%–20%, 20%–30%, >30%
- 31.
- What price premium would you expect that farmers will pay for seed with higher disease resistance such that the survival is increased with 20%?<10%, 10%–20%, 20%–30%, >30%
- Recommendations
- 32.
- What are your recommendations to governmental bodies, other public organizations and private actors and/or investors to facilitate new breeding programs and to increase dissemination and marketing of genetically improved fish to farmers?
- 33.
- Other comments?
A.3. Questionnaire for Academic Actors
- Personal information
- What is your position?
- Name of Organization, employer, location
- Is your organization (employer) profit, non-profit, public, private or cooperate (MNC, large national or SME), research or industry?
- What is your background (education, training and work experience)?
- How did you get your education and training? For example how was it funded?
- Why did you choose this field of education and training?
- Do you find your education useful for your current work?
- Breeding program
- 8.
- For what species is (are) the fish breeding program(s) operating in your jurisdiction or country?How big is the production of these species in your country?
- 9.
- How was the breeding program(s) established? Who took the initiatives and why? How was the upstart funded?
- 10.
- Who were the owner(s) and how was the program managed and organized in the first generations of breeding?
- 11.
- How big was the investment made to get it up and running?
- 12.
- For how long has the program been running (no. of generations and years of selection)?
- 13.
- Who are the owner(s) and how is the program managed and organized during the last generations (e.g., private, public, cooperative)?
- 14.
- What type of testing and selection strategy is applied and what causes the possible limitations?
- 15.
- How was the fish or seed of the base population accessed?
- 16.
- How many families are produced and tested in the nucleus breeding population?
- 17.
- What traits are recorded and selected for? Why were these chosen?
- 18.
- Are you applying any DNA technology or chromosome manipulation in your breeding program?
- 19.
- How big is the genetic gain per generation and/or year (if available)?
- 20.
- How is the program being funded or supported today?
- 21.
- How big are the investments made for the current operation (USD)?
- 22.
- What are the annual running costs (USD), and what are the main cost factors (e.g., labour, feed, power)?
- 23.
- What are the main challenges and problems for running the program today?
- Dissemination program
- 24.
- How are the fish disseminated to the farmers, through hatcheries or direct to farmers? What infrastructure is needed for this?
- 25.
- What are the costs of the dissemination?
- 26.
- What is the price of fish seed to grow-out farmers?
- 27.
- How many fry are disseminated?
- 28.
- Who are the grow-out farmers buying the seed? Big, medium, small scale or household farmers? What is their training/education, intensity (high or low input) and technology level?
- 29.
- What quality or traits are the farmers requesting most? Is price more important to farmers?
- 30.
- How big is the demand from farmers? Is it easy or hard to market the genetically improved seed? Is all produced seed sold?
- 31.
- What would make it easier to market? (e.g., all male, quality, standardization, price, service, education/training of actors (hatchery operators and farmers), DNA information or technology?)
- 32.
- Are there competing breeding programs, and how competitive are these with respect to price, quality and service? Are these public, private or cooperative programs, owned by non-profit or profit organizations?
- Recommendations
- 33.
- What are your recommendations to governmental bodies, other public organizations and private actors and/or investors to facilitate new breeding programs and to increase dissemination and marketing of genetically improved fish to farmers?
- 34.
- Other comments?
References
- FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Fisheries and aquaculture statistics, 2014. Available online: http://www.fao.org/fishery/statistics/en (accessed on 20 December 2014).
- Mullon, C.; Fréon, P.; Cury, P. The dynamics of collapse in world fisheries. Fish Fish. 2005, 6, 111–120. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Fishery Bureau, Ministry of Agriculture, People’s Republic of China. China Fisheries Yearbook; China Agriculture Press: Beijing, China, 2013. Cited by Cao, L.; Naylor, R.; Henriksson, P.; Leadbitter, D.; Metian, M.; Troell, M.; Zhang, W. China’s aquaculture and the world’s wild fisheries. Science 2015, 347, 133–135. [Google Scholar]
- Project Team for Research into the Sustainable Development Strategy of China’s Cultivation Industry. In Study on the Sustainable Development Strategy of China’s Cultivation Industry—Aquaculture; China Agriculture Press: Beijing, China, 2013. Cited by Cao, L.; Naylor, R.; Henriksson, P.; Leadbitter, D.; Metian, M.; Troell, M.; Zhang, W. China’s aquaculture and the world’s wild fisheries. Science 2015, 347, 133–135. [Google Scholar]
- FAO. National Aquaculture Sector Overview Viet Nam. Available online: http://www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_vietnam/en (accessed on 13 April 2015).
- Nguyen, M.D. Value Chain Analysis Vietnam; Nong Lam University: Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam, 2011; p. 14. Available online: http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/user_upload/fisheries/docs/Vietnam_edited.doc (accessed on 13 April 2015).
- Gjedrem, T.; Robinson, N.; Rye, M. The importance of selective breeding in aquaculture to meet future demands for animal protein: A review. Aquaculture 2012, 350–353, 117–129. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gjedrem, T. The first family-based breeding program in aquaculture. Rev. Aquac. 2010, 2, 2–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bentsen, H.B.; Gjerde, B.; Ponzoni, R.W. Genetic improvement of farmed tilapias: Response to five generations of selection for increased body weight at harvest in Oreochromis niloticus and the further impact of the project. Manuscript in preparation. 2015. [Google Scholar]
- Gjedrem, T.; Olesen, I. Basic statistical parameters. In Selection and Breeding Programs in Aquaculture; Gjedrem, T., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2005; pp. 45–72. ISBN 978-1-4020-3341-4 (Print) 978-1-4020-3342-1 (Online). [Google Scholar]
- Gjedrem, T. Improvement of productivity through breeding schemes. GeoJournal 1985, 10, 233–241. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bentsen, H.B. Application of breeding and selection theory on farmed fish. In Proceedings of the 4th World Congress of Genetics Applied to Livestock Production, Edinburgh, Scotland, 23‒27 July 1990; Volume XVI, pp. 149–158.
- Gjedrem, T.; Thodesen, J. Selection. In Selection and Breeding Programs in Aquaculture; Gjedrem, T., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2005; pp. 89–111. ISBN 978-1-4020-3341-4 (Print) 978-1-4020-3342-1 (Online). [Google Scholar]
- Gjedrem, T. Selective breeding to improve aquaculture production. World Aquac. 1997, 28, 33–45. [Google Scholar]
- Ponzoni, R.W.; Nguyen, N.H.; Khaw, H.L. Investment appraisal of genetic improvement programs in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture 2007, 269, 187–199. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ponzoni, R.W.; Nguyen, N.H.; Khaw, H.L.; Ninh, N.H. Accounting for genotype by environment interaction in economic appraisal of genetic improvement programs in common carp Cyprinus carpio. Aquaculture 2008, 285, 47–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olesen, I.; Rosendal, G.K.; Tvedt, M.W.; Bryde, M.; Bentsen, H.B. Access to and protection of aquaculture genetic resources – Structures and strategies in Norwegian aquaculture. Aquaculture 2007, 272 S1, S47–S61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rosendal, G.K.; Olesen, I.; Tvedt, M.W. Evolving legal regimes, market structures and biology affecting access to and protection of aquaculture genetic resources. Aquaculture 2013, 402–403, 97–105. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Refstie, T.; Gjedrem, T. Reproductive traits in aquatic animals. In Selection and Breeding Programs in Aquaculture; Gjedrem, T., Ed.; Springer: Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 2005; pp. 113–120. ISBN 978-1-4020-3341-4 (Print) 978-1-4020-3342-1 (Online). [Google Scholar]
- Eknath, A.E.; Doyle, R.W. Effective population size and rate of inbreeding in aquaculture of Indian major carps. Aquaculture 1990, 85, 293–305. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ponzoni, R.W.; Khaw, H.L.; Yee, H.Y. GIFT: The Story since Leaving ICLARM (Now Known as The WorldFish Center). Socioeconomic, Access and Benefit Sharing and Dissemination Aspects; Fridtjof Nansen Institute Report 14/2010; Fridtjof Nansen Institute: Lysaker, Norway, 2010; pp. 1–47. ISBN 978-82-7613-602-9 (Print) 978-82-7613-603-6 (Online) ISSN 1504–9744. [Google Scholar]
- Knibb, W.; Whatmore, P.; Lamont, R.; Quinn, J.; Powell, D.; Elizur, A.; Anderson, T.; Remilton, C.; Nguyen, N.H. Can genetic diversity be maintained in long term mass selected populations without pedigree information?—A case study using banana shrimp Fenneropenaeus merguiensis. Aquaculture 2014, 428‒429, 71–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bentsen, H.B.; Olesen, I. Designing aquaculture mass selection programs to avoid high inbreeding rates. Aquaculture 2002, 204, 349–359. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ponzoni, R.W.; Khaw, H.L.; Nguyen, N.H.; Hamzah, A. Inbreeding and effective population size in the Malaysian nucleus of the GIFT strain of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture 2010, 302, 42–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moav, R.; Wohlfarth, G.W. Two-way selection for growth rate in the common carp (Cyprinus caprio L). Genetics 1976, 82, 83–101. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Hulata, G.; Wohlfarth, G.W.; Halevy, A. Mass selection for growth rate in the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture 1986, 57, 177–184. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Teichert-Coddington, D.R.; Smitherman, R.O. Lack of response by T. nilotica to mass selection for rapid early growth. Trans. Am. Fish. Soc. 1988, 117, 297–300. [Google Scholar]
- Huang, C.M.; Liao, I.C. Response to mass selection for growth rate in O. niloticus. Aquaculture 1990, 85, 199–205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moav, R.; Hulata, G.; Wohlfarth, G. Genetic differences between the Chinese and European races of the common carp. I. Analysis of genotype-environment interactions for growth rate. Heredity 1975, 34, 323–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Gjedrem, T.; Gjøen, H.M.; Gjerde, B. Genetic origin of Norwegian farmed Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 1991, 98, 41–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eknath, A.E.; Bentsen, H.B.; Ponzoni, R.W.; Rye, M.; Nguyen, N.H.; Thodesen, J.; Gjerde, B. Genetic improvement of farmed tilapias: Composition and genetic parameters of a synthetic base population of Oreochromis niloticus for selective breeding. Aquaculture 2007, 273, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eknath, A.E.; Tayamen, M.M.; Palada-de Vera, M.S.; Danting, J.C.; Reyes, R.A.; Dionisio, E.E.; Capili, J.B.; Bolivar, H.L.; Abella, T.A.; Circa, A.V.; et al. Genetic improvement of farmed tilapias: The growth performance of eight strains of Oreochromis niloticus tested in different farm environments. Aquaculture 1993, 111, 171–188. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- King, G.; Keohane, R.O.; Verba, S. Designing Social Inquiry. Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research; Princeton University Press: Princeton, NJ, USA, 1994; pp. 1–264. [Google Scholar]
- Ministry of Agriculture. Seed subsidy: A successful case of China’s agricultural and rural development policies with Chinese characteristics. 2008. Available online: http://www.xinhua.org (accessed on 15 April 2015,Chinese text). [Google Scholar] Cited by Huang, J.; Wang, X.; Rozelle, S. The subsidization of farming households in China’s agriculture. Food Policy 2013, 41, 124–132. [Google Scholar]
- Acosta, B.O.; Gupta, M.V. The genetic improvement of farmed tilapias project: Impact and lessons learned. In Success Stories in Asian Aquaculture; De Silva, S.S., Davy, F.B., Eds.; Springer: London, UK, 2010; pp. 149–171. [Google Scholar]
- Gjerde, B.; Su, X. Genetic Improvement of Freshwater Fish, Final Report of World Bank Aquaculture Improvement Project (CN-PE-69949). 2001; 1–51.
- WorldFish Center. Genetic Improvement of Carp Species in Asia (RETA 5711); Final report to the Asian development Bank; WorldFish Center: Penang, Malaysia, 2001; pp. 1–158. Available online: http://www.worldfishcenter.org/resource_centre/WF_322.pdf (accessed 21 January 2015).
- Ninh, H.N.; Ponzoni, R.W.; Nguyen, H.N.; Woolliams, J.A.; Taggart, J.B.; McAndrew, B.J.; Penman, D.J. A comparison of communal and separate rearing of families in selective breeding of common carp (Cyprinus carpio): Responses to selection. Aquaculture 2013, 408–409, 152–159. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Phillips, M.; Rogers, W.; Downing, W.; Beveridge, M.C.M.; Padiyar, P.A.; Karim, M.; Subasinghe, R. Inclusive aquaculture - business at the bottom of the aquatic pyramid. FAO Aquac. Newsl. 2011, 48, 44–46. Available online: http://www.worldfishcenter.org/resource_centre/WF_3043.pdf (accessed on 21 January 2015). [Google Scholar]
- Thodesen, J.; Ma, D.Y.; Rye, M.; Wang, Y.X.; Li, S.J.; Bentsen, H.B.; Gjedrem, T. Genetic improvement of tilapias in China: Genetic parameters and selection responses in growth, pond survival and cold-water tolerance of blue tilapia (Oreochromis aureus) after four generations of multi-trait selection. Aquaculture 2013, 396‒399, 32–42. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Thodesen, J.; Ma, D.Y.; Rye, M.; Wang, Y.X.; Li, S.J.; Bentsen, H.B.; Yazdi, M.H.; Gjedrem, T. Genetic improvement of tilapias in China: Genetic parameters and selection responses in growth, survival and external color traits of red tilapia (Oreochromis spp) after four generations of multi-trait selection. Aquaculture 2013, 416‒417, 354–366. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Olesen, I.; Groen, A.F.; Gjerde, B. Definition of animal breeding goals for sustainable production systems. J. Anim. Sci. 2000, 78, 570–582. [Google Scholar] [PubMed]
- Lerner, I.M. Population Genetics and Animal Improvement as Illustrated by the Inheritance of Egg Production; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1950; pp. 1–74. [Google Scholar]
- Bentsen, H.B. Genetic effects of selection on polygenic traits with examples from Atlantic salmon, Salmo salar L. Aquac. Res. 1994, 25, 89–102. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Cock, J.; Gitterle, T.; Salazar, M.; Rye, M. Breeding for disease resistance of Penaeid shrimps. Aquaculture 2009, 286, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Dey, M.M.; Eknath, A.E.; Sifa, L.; Hussain, M.G.; Tran, M.T.; Nguyen, V.H.; Aypa, S.; Pongthana, N. Performance and nature of genetically improved farmed tilapia: A bioeconomic analysis. Aquac. Econ. Manag. 2000, 4, 83–106. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Lovett, S.; Simmons, L.C.; Kali, R. Guanxi versus the Market: Ethics and Efficiency. J. Int. Bus. Stud. 1999, 30, 231–247. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, M. Asian Management Systems: Chinese, Japanese and Korean Styles of Business; Cengage Learning: Boston, MA, USA, 2004; pp. 1–278. ISBN 1861529414. [Google Scholar]
- Turley, J. Connecting with China: Business Success through Mutual Benefit and Respect; John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, West Sussex, UK, 2010; pp. 1–254. [Google Scholar]
- Kagawa, M.; Bailey, C. Trade Linkages in Shrimp Exports: Japan, Thailand and Vietnam. Dev. Policy Rev. 2006, 24, 303–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Tran, N.; Bailey, C.; Wilson, N.; Phillips, M. Governance of global value chains in response to food safety and certification standards: The case of shrimp from Vietnam. World Dev. 2013, 45, 325–336. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Eknath, A.E.; Hulata, G. Use and exchange of genetic resources of Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Rev. Aquac. 2009, 1, 197–213. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rosendal, G.K.; Olesen, I.; Walløe Tvedt, M. Access to, equity and protection of genetic resources in Ghana: The case of tilapia (O. niloticus); FNI Report 15/2012; Fridtjof Nansen Institute: Lysaker, Norway, 2012; pp. 1–28. ISBN 978-82-7613-657-9 (Online) ISSN 1893-5486. [Google Scholar]
- Hussain, M.G.; Sarwar, M.R.; Akhand, R.I.; Sarker, S.K.; Rahman, A.; Amin, A.S.; Rashid, M. Assessment of the carp seeds value chain in southern Bangladesh; WorldFish Center Report, WorldFish Center: Penang, Malaysia, 2012; pp. 1–56. [Google Scholar]
- Rosendal, G.K.; Olesen, I.; Bentsen, H.B.; Walløe Tvedt, M.; Bryde, M. Access to and legal protection of aquaculture genetic resources—Norwegian perspectives. J. World Intellect. Prop. 2006, 9, 392–412. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grimsrud, K.M.; Nielsen, H.M.; Navrud, S.; Olesen, I. Households’ willingness-to-pay for improved fish welfare in breeding programs for farmed Atlantic salmon. Aquaculture 2013, 372–375, 19–27. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Klesius, P.; Shoemaker, C.A.; Evans, J.J. Streptococcus: A worldwide fish health problem. In Proceedings of the 8th International Symposium on Tilapia in Aquaculture, Cairo, Egypt, 12–14 October 2008; Volume 1, pp. 83–107.
© 2015 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution license ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Olesen, I.; Bentsen, H.B.; Phillips, M.; Ponzoni, R.W. Can the Global Adoption of Genetically Improved Farmed Fish Increase Beyond 10%, and How? J. Mar. Sci. Eng. 2015, 3, 240-266. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse3020240
Olesen I, Bentsen HB, Phillips M, Ponzoni RW. Can the Global Adoption of Genetically Improved Farmed Fish Increase Beyond 10%, and How? Journal of Marine Science and Engineering. 2015; 3(2):240-266. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse3020240
Chicago/Turabian StyleOlesen, Ingrid, Hans B. Bentsen, Michael Phillips, and Raul W. Ponzoni. 2015. "Can the Global Adoption of Genetically Improved Farmed Fish Increase Beyond 10%, and How?" Journal of Marine Science and Engineering 3, no. 2: 240-266. https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse3020240