Sustainable Practices for Enhancing Soil Health and Crop Quality in Modern Agriculture: A Review

Abstract

Soil health is the cornerstone of sustainable agriculture, serving as the foundation for crop productivity, environmental resilience, and long-term ecosystem stability. Contemporary agricultural methods, characterized by excessive pesticide and fertilizer application, monoculture, and intensive tillage, have resulted in extensive soil degradation, requiring novel strategies to restore and sustain soil functionality. This review examined sustainable practices to enhance soil health and improve crop quality in modern agricultural systems. Preserving soil’s physical, chemical, and biological characteristics is essential for its health, achievable through various agronomic strategies. Practices such as crop rotation, cover cropping, no-till or carbon farming, conservation agriculture (CA), and the use of organic amendments were explored for their ability to restore the soil structure, increase organic matter, and promote biodiversity. These initiatives seek to preserve and enhance soil ecosystems by aligning agricultural practices with ecological principles, ensuring long-term productivity and environmental stability. Enhancing soil health will improve soil functions, supporting the concept that increasing the soil organic carbon (SOC) is necessary. This study determined that conservation tillage is more advantageous for soil health than conventional tillage, a topic that is still controversial among scientists and farmers, and that various tillage systems exhibit distinct interactions. These strategies, through the integrated management of the interaction of plant, soil, microbial, and human activities, would enhance soil health.

1. Introduction

Soil health is essential in yield optimization and promoting long-term sustainability [1]. It encompasses the soil’s ability to maintain chemical, biological, and physical features that improve the environmental quality and promote the well-being of plants and animals. Globally, the importance of soil health is highlighted by its role in not only supporting food production but also enhancing resilience against climate change and extreme weather events [2].

With projections indicating that the global population may reach 9 billion by 2050, food security concerns are intensifying, necessitating soil health preservation and degradation mitigation [3]. According to the United Nations, an annual loss of 24 billion tons of fertile soil is occurring, a trend that could lead to over 90% of the Earth’s surface area being degraded by 2050 [4]. Panagos et al. [5] utilized microeconomic models to determine that 12 million hectares of agricultural land in the European Union had experienced soil degradation. This resulted in economic losses in the agricultural sector amounting to approximately EUR 300 million and imposed a strain on natural resources.

Global conventional agriculture practices optimize agricultural production via the use of synthetic inputs, energy resources, and diverse industrial materials, frequently at the expense of biodiversity, soil fertility, and overall ecosystem health [6]. The unintended consequences of these practices encompass soil acidification, nutrient imbalances with detrimental effects on the soil biota [7,8], heightened soil compaction, and salinization, concurrently diminishing nutrient levels and compromising soil productivity and long-term sustainability. Numerous anthropogenic activities have created challenges to soil ecosystem health, leading to biodiversity loss [9], a decline in organic matter [10], increased diffuse pollution [11], and irreversible salinization [12].

In Europe, soil health remains seriously threatened by issues such as soil erosion, nutrient deficiencies, pollution, compaction, and the loss of soil organic matter (SOM) and biodiversity. Additionally, land degradation (erosion, desertification, and salinization) and reduced soil fertility are key factors leading to a drop in the agricultural output within agroecosystems [13,14,15]. For example, according to research by Shamshuddin et al. [16], decreased wheat, corn, and rice yields were attributed to soil acidity and elevated aluminum toxicity and a lower availability of exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg, and K). The detrimental impact of soil biological decay was also documented [17], indicating a decline in the germination of several crops attributed to the establishment of cyanobacteria-dominated crusts.

As the global population grows, providing a sustainable supply of nutrient-rich food increasingly relies on the meticulous management of soil health to prevent the depletion of essential resources. Therefore, the global community is actively seeking viable strategies to enhance soil health for sustained agricultural productivity, designed to respect the environment, improve resource efficiency, and promote human well-being. These systems integrate ecological, biological, physical, and chemical principles in food production while preserving environmental integrity [18]. There is a necessity for innovative and practical soil management techniques that involve interdisciplinary methods while making advances in science and technology to address the complex challenges facing modern agriculture. A central aim is to control the living ecosystem to accomplish various functions, including carbon sequestration [19], water purification [20], nutrient cycling [21], nutrient storage and supplies for plants, and the provision of habitats for diverse organisms [22].

The thorough monitoring of soil health and the comprehension of the relationships between soils and their essential functions are vital for formulating solutions and policy interventions focused on sustainable soil management. The EU Soil Observatory (EUSO) is essential within the European Union (EU) framework. The EUSO aims to integrate monitoring evidence, furnish indicators, and synthesize the latest scientific findings to effectively assist soil-related policy development across several areas, including the environment, food, and biodiversity [23].

To alleviate the detrimental impacts of agricultural systems and guarantee their enduring sustainability, it is imperative to use management measures that improve or maintain the soil quality [24]. Continued research is essential for addressing these challenges and improving the understanding of soil health concerning climate resilience, biodiversity, and ecosystem services. Future directions include the implementation of resilient technology for soil monitoring, emphasizing the importance of soil biodiversity, and the harmonization of legislation with environmentally friendly guidelines [25]. As discussions on soil health progress, it is essential to examine the complex interconnections among soil management, agricultural productivity, and environmental stewardship. Figure 1 illustrates the consensus that healthy soils are pivotal for food security. To understand the complex links between soil health and food security, improved agricultural practices and governance are required. For instance, more than 95% of the world’s food comes from soil, and more than 25% of global biodiversity is found in soils. As a result, ensuring healthy soils using sustainable agricultural practices could be essential for maintaining the health of people and ecosystems.

In this context, an exhaustive investigation was performed on the impact of agricultural practices and their connections with soil health with the perception that healthy chemical, physical, and biological soil properties produce healthier foods. This review examines current achievements in the implementation of conservation agricultural practices as a sustainable system, emphasizing their impact on soil health and their contribution to successful land management and food security enhancement. The review delineates successful agricultural strategies that improve soil health and augment crop yields with the minimum soil degradation, while also highlighting the advantages of these activities in maintaining soil quality.

2. Methodology

The MDPI, Scopus, and Web of Science databases were reviewed to ensure an adequate understanding of sustainable practices aimed at enhancing soil health and crop quality. The search aimed to identify the literature that assessed the impact of sustainable practices on improving crop quality in the context of modern agricultural systems. Peer-reviewed journal articles and review papers were the primary sources that were considered; they were selected based on their reliability and importance to the study’s goals. Particular terms and combinations of keywords related to the subject were utilized in the search strategy, such as sustainable agriculture, agronomic practices, tillage practices, soil health, and soil physicochemical properties.

We carefully evaluated several important research studies about sustainable practices and how they impact soil health. After a comprehensive search of the literature, we identified 248 high-quality peer-reviewed sources that provided the most reliable and relevant information. This review report incorporates the findings from several meticulously chosen sources. An extensive selection of theoretical debates, empirical studies, and practical suggestions from a variety of fields, such as environmental science, agriculture, and soil science, was included in the chosen literature. An extensive analysis of the relationships and patterns related to sustainable practices and soil health was enabled by this interdisciplinary approach, subject to a comprehensive assessment procedure that took into account studies’ importance, quality, and ability to significantly contribute to the complete investigation. The major findings, information, and conclusions on the influence of sustainable practices on soil health and crop productivity have been compiled in a complete and practical review. A flow diagram showing the filtering procedure is shown in Figure 2. Although measures were taken to minimize prejudice, it is recognized that some particular preconceptions may have persisted.

A strong fundamental basis for understanding the present state of knowledge on the subject is provided by the selection of the literature that we studied, which covers multiple domains. Moreover, it is an invaluable tool for highlighting important topics that need additional investigation, contributing to the existing discussion about sustainable practices for enhancing soil health and crop quality in modern agriculture.

3. Soil Health and Other Concepts

Supported by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals and the European Union Green Deal, soil health has garnered growing political and scientific interest due to the soil’s capacity to provide a range of ecosystem services in terms of safety and sustainability [26].

The concepts of soil health and soil quality, perceived as the soil capability, are frequently used synonymously, resulting in a misunderstanding regarding their distinction. Cárceles Rodríguez et al. [25] characterize soil health as the holistic capacity of soil to operate as a living system that supports plant, animal, and human life. In contrast, soil quality pertains to the ability of a particular soil type to facilitate specified uses, including productive agriculture. Bonfante et al. [26] elucidate this distinction by asserting that “soil health pertains to the present capacity of a particular soil to function and support ecosystem services”, while “soil quality denotes the intrinsic capacity of a specific soil to function and sustain ecosystem services”.

The notion of soil quality refers to the soil’s capacity to function within the ecosystem and fulfill land use criteria to sustain biological productivity, maintain environmental integrity, and improve the health of flora and fauna [27]. This definition transcends the concept of soil fertility, which principally concerns the soil’s ability to furnish essential conditions for plant growth via its physical, chemical, and biological characteristics. Soil fertility is often a focal point in agricultural science, emphasizing the importance of nutrient availability, water retention, and aeration for optimal plant growth [28,29,30]. The concept is widely used in agricultural research and covers most aspects of soil properties.

On the other hand, the concept of soil health, which emerged in the early 2000s, continues to evolve, reflecting the complexity of soil ecosystems [31]. To assess soil health, a variety of properties, including physical, chemical, and biological attributes associated with vital soil ecosystem activities, water management, nutrient cycling, the soil structure, and the microbiological diversity, have been used (Figure 3). Cardoso et al. [32] define a healthy soil as one that maintains ecological balance and functionality, supporting a diverse ecosystem characterized by high biodiversity above and below ground, as well as sustained productivity. Doran and Zeiss [24] describe soil health as “the capacity of soil to function as a vital living system”, emphasizing its role in sustaining productivity and maintaining environmental quality. Tahat et al. [18] further elaborate that healthy soil is a dynamic, living system providing multiple ecosystem services, including ensuring water quality, moisture maintenance, and greenhouse gas regulation. Also, Yang et al. [33] define soil health as “the capacity of soil to operate within ecosystem parameters to enhance crop and animal productivity, maintain or augment environmental sustainability, and foster worldwide human health”. Kibblewhite et al. [2] describe healthy agricultural soil as being “capable of facilitating the production of food and fiber at sufficient amounts and quality to satisfy human requirements, while concurrently preserving vital ecosystem functions that enhance human quality of life and protect biodiversity”.

The analogy of soil health being akin to the health of an organism or community has been widely adopted, highlighting its importance for agricultural productivity and environmental sustainability [27,34]. The recognition that soil health directly influences the well-being of animals and humans through crop quality has led to increased attention being paid to soil health since the early 20th century [35]. However, despite the conceptual clarity provided by various definitions, operationalizing these concepts requires specific measurement criteria [36]. Bünemann et al. [37] and Shukla et al. [38] emphasize the need for indicators that correlate with significant soil processes and are responsive to management practices and environmental conditions.

The growing interest in soil health and quality reflects an enhanced understanding of soil functionality and its critical role in sustaining agricultural lands and ecosystem services. As research continues to evolve, it is essential to establish a consensus on key indicators for assessing soil health and quality, ensuring that these assessments are context-dependent and relevant to specific land use practices [39,40].

Assessment of Soil Health

The assessment of soil health mostly focuses on quantifying a few indicators that affect soil functionality and ecosystem services [41]. Soil health indicators are generally grouped into physical (penetration resistance, aggregation, infiltration, depth to a hardpan texture, water-holding capacity), chemical (organic carbon, bioavailable nutrients, pH, cation exchange capacity, electrical conductivity, potential pollutants), and biological (N mineralization, microbial biomass, microbial activity, soil respiration) categories, though these distinctions are not always clear-cut, as many soil properties result from the interplay of multiple processes [42,43]. For instance, the mineral type, biological activity, and/or chemical factors (organic carbon content) all impact soil aggregation. Analogously, the amount of plant-available phosphate is the consequence of biological functions (plant absorption and microbial mineralization), although it pertains to chemical indicators. Therefore, the current classification is less of an indication of causality (because the phosphate availability in plants is also the consequence of a certain biological process) than of which indicator is easily analyzed (the phosphate content is a chemical indicator).

Based on this, there is no singular indicator that can measure all the dimensions of soil health, nor is it pragmatic (or requisite) to assess every soil characteristic. Therefore, it is crucial to select a minimum data set that contains comprehensive data and aids in minimizing the costs and work associated with evaluating soil health. The preferred characteristics for soil health indicators are (i) easy measurement; (ii) the applicability of practical, fast, and cost-effective measuring techniques; (iii) sensitivity to management adjustments; (iv) relevance to soil ecosystem processes; and (v) utility for management purposes [24,44]. For example, soil health indicators, including the organic matter content, soil pH, nutrient levels, and microbial activity, hold substantial practical significance for farmers. Through the consistent monitoring of these variables, farmers may evaluate the vitality of the soil, detect potential deficiencies or imbalances, and make educated decisions regarding suitable remedies. A reduction in organic matter may indicate the necessity for more organic amendments such as compost or cover crops, while imbalanced pH levels may necessitate liming or alternative soil treatments. Monitoring microbial activity enables farmers to assess the efficacy of their sustainable practices, such as crop rotation or decreased tillage, in fostering soil biodiversity and improving nutrient cycling. Ultimately, these indicators empower farmers to enhance their management methods, increase crop yields, and promote long-term soil health and sustainability [45].

A suitable minimum data set can be employed that encompasses statistical instruments (such as principal component analysis and multiple correlations), uncertain sets, expert assessments, and agrarian/local expertise [46]. Upon the establishment of the minimum data set, linear and/or non-linear methodologies may be used to analyze the soil indicators. A non-linear scoring approach more accurately reflects system functionality compared to a linear method; nonetheless, it is more labor-intensive and necessitates greater expertise [47]. Individual variables can be reunited in a comprehensive index which serves to inform management decisions aimed at enhancing the long-term sustainability of soil resources [48]. These indices possess an integrative nature, amalgamating multidimensional data regarding the physical, chemical, and biological attributes of soil into a singular metric of soil health [49]. A variety of soil health measures are documented in the literature, including additives, weighted indices, decision support systems, integrated quality indices, and the Nemoro soil quality index, among others [47,50]. Additionally, these indices require several criteria to be met to be used as a soil health indicator, which consist of being pertinent to soil health and its ecosystem services and functions, being sensitive, changing detectably and rapidly without reflecting only short-term variation, and being practical, meaning inexpensive and quick to perform. While certain significant indicators do not meet all the requirements, over half are currently used in more than 20% of soil health analysis designs.

The advantages of using these indices are evident; they offer a single soil health value, enabling a direct comparison across different soils [51]. Additionally, they serve as a decision-making tool to help identify the most sustainable management practices [47]. However, there are some limitations, i.e., the variety of methodologies available to construct this one-dimensional index can lead to varying values, complicating result interpretation [51]. Moreover, these indices may sometimes provide an overly simplistic view of how complex agroecosystems respond to natural or human-induced disturbances [52]. Considering minor variations, equivalent soil health indices and their consequences for system services were typically mentioned in reports (

Table 1. Indicators of soil health and their assessment.

Soil Health Parameter	Measurement Unit	Explanation	Measurement Techniques and References
Texture	12 classifications determined by the relative proportions of sand, silt, and clay	Crucial for the transmission and retention of soil water and nutrients	Bouyoucos hydrometer procedure and international pipette technique; Gupta [53].
Bulk density	Gram cm−3 or Mg m−3	Indicator of soil compaction and represents the soil’s capacity for structural support, water and solute transport, and aeration	Direct and indirect methods; Al-shammary et al. [54].
Water-holding capacity	mm m−1 depth of soil	Adequate moisture to sustain plant growth	Pressure plate and membrane device; Richards and Weaver [55].
Penetration resistance	Megapascal (MPa); N m−2 (cone index, N cm−2)	Concerns the infiltration capacity and the processes of erosion and runoff	Cone penetrometer; Herrick and Jones [56].
Aggregation	Mean weight diameter (mm)	Soil structure and erosion protection indicator	Wet sieving and dry sieving methodologies; Das and Chong [57].
Infiltration	mm hour−1	Indicators for erosion and runoff	Ring infiltrometer; Sur and Gupta [58].
Depth of hardpan	Specified as the depth from the surface at which hardpan is observed	Roots’ growth potential	Established using the compaction of the soil at various layers; Batey [59].
Porosity	%	Proportion of a soil’s volume that is made up of pores or spaces between soil particles	Mercury intrusion porosimetry; image interpretation and soil micromorphology; Rao and Jo [60].
pH	1–14	Availability of nutrients	Soil in water or 0.1 M KCl or 0.01 M CaCl2 solution at ratio of 1:2.5–10; Prasad et al. [61].
Electrical conductivity	dS m−1	Concerns soil structure, infiltration, and crop growth	Saturated soil extract or soil–water suspension (1:2 or 1:2.5); Rao and Reddy [62].
Total organic carbon	% or g kg−1	Crucial for soil composition, fertility, and moisture retention	Tandon [63].
Total soil nitrogen	mg kg−1 soil or kg ha−1	Nutrient required for plant growth and development	Kjeldahl method; Nelson and Sommers [64].
Cation exchange capacity	Milliequivalent 100−1 g soil or Cmol(p+) kg−1 soil	Soil’s capacity to provide plant nutrients	Ammonium acetate extraction technique; barium chloride (BaCl2) compulsive exchange method; Gillman and Sumpter [65].
Microbial biomass carbon	μg microbial biomass carbon g−1 soil	Source and/or drain of C and nutrients	Fumigation method; Nunan et al. [66].
Soil respiration rate (soil CO2 efflux)	μ mol m−2 s−1	Indicator for biological activity and organic matter	Closed or open dynamic system; Davidson et al. [67].
Nitrogen fixation of microorganisms	n mole ethylene g−1 h−1	Capacity of the soil to supply N for crop growth	Acetylene reductase activity; Stewart et al. [68].

).

For example, the soil organic carbon meets the requirements for soil health indicators and plays a vital role in the global carbon cycle and climate change but usually is not sensitive, causing the adoption of additional indicators including higher-sensitivity organic carbon fractions. Generally, soil contains 1895–2530 Pg of carbon, double the amount found in the atmosphere and thrice that in the biotic carbon pool; 695–930 Pg is inorganic, while 1200–1600 Pg is organic [69]. The soil organic carbon (SOC) serves as both a source and store of plant nutrients, considerably improving crop productivity and contributing to soil health. Assessing the SOC content together with other soil characteristics, including the clay content, helps to avoid erosion and offers important information about the soil structure.

Table 2. Roles of SOC in soil health [70].

Plant	Improvement	Maintenance	Reduction	Ecosystem
Enhancement of crop yield	Aggregate stability	Temperature	Bulk density	Increase in carbon sequestration
Enhancement of quality	Porosity	Soil consistency	Erodibility and erosion	Lessens greenhouse gas emissions
Enhances the efficiency of resource utilization	Infiltration	Air circulation	Accrual of hazardous substances	Mitigates siltation of reservoirs and augments their storage capacity and longevity
Improvement in profitability	Chelation of micronutrients	Optimum soil moisture	Minimizes the leaching losses of nutrients
Sustainable production systems	Cation exchange capacity and base saturation	pH	Soil crusting and compaction

presents the roles of the SOC in soil health, agricultural productivity, and ecosystem services. Substantial fluctuations in the SOC content are ascribed to varying land use changes and crop management strategies within agricultural production systems, along with the reactivity of the SOC to these modifications [70].

The physical characteristics of soil are also relevant for evaluating the health of soil. The organization of soil particles and the spaces that exist between them are known as the soil structure, and it is an important physical indicator. Good aggregation, which enhances water infiltration and retention, inhibits erosion, and promotes root growth, tends to occur in healthy soil [53,57]. Additionally, an important indicator in agriculture is the soil compaction caused by heavy equipment and intense tillage, which can limit the movement of water and root growth [55,56]. The soil’s capacity for storing air and water, which is essential for microbial and plant growth, is similarly impacted by the soil porosity [60]. The importance of the ability of the soil to retain moisture has been highlighted in light of water scarcity and climate change [55,60].

Microorganisms are a critical and transient marker of soil health. Management techniques greatly influence the structure and activities of microorganism communities, which affect the soil’s general biological health [41]. Currently, further research is required that concentrates on using microorganisms as indicators, particularly in soil preservation scenarios [71,72].

The soil ecosystem includes living roots, which are important for sequestering the SOC. Root exudates, which are organic chemicals produced in the soil by roots, are one of the main ways that living roots contribute to the SOC content. Exudates provide soil microorganisms with a carbon source and increase their activity. In mineral-associated organic carbon pools, they can also improve microbial metabolism and enzyme synthesis, which raises SOC decomposition rates and stabilizes the SOC [73]. Additionally, studies have shown that both the amount and the type of carbon inputs derived from roots can be modified by various mycorrhizal genera [66,67]. Through the breakdown of organic waste and the stabilization of organic matter in soil aggregates, mycorrhizal fungi facilitate the production of stable SOC [74].

Additional indicators, such as the soil texture or porosity, remain unchanged and/or are difficult to manage. While they are important healthy soil indicators, their monitoring requires expensive analysis or measurements in the field in numerous applications. These uncontrolled indicators, however, establish the soil health context and can be regarded as representing the soil capability or potential.

4. Global Farming Practice Overview

Farming practices around the world are extremely diversified and influenced by environmental, social, and technical variables. Widespread in Asia, Latin America, and Africa, subsistence farming depends on human involvement and crop rotation, whereas commercial and intensive practice, which is prevalent in North America, Australia, and Europe, relies on a mono-cropping system and requires the use of advanced equipment, chemical fertilizers, and pesticides [75,76,77]. Multiple cropping and extensive irrigation are implemented in intensive farming in areas with high populations such as India and China, while extensive practice, which is used in Australia and certain areas of South America, involves the management of large plots with minimal effort [78]. Subsistence farming is the primary source of income for more than 80% of the rural population in Africa, and smallholder farming is also prevalent throughout most of Latin America and Asia [79]. Conversely, advanced areas such as Europe, North America, and Australia have high rates of mechanization, with innovative technologies boosting production and efficiency (Figure 4).

As illustrated in Figure 4, conventional tillage was the most widespread tillage practice in the EU. In two-thirds of the arable area, conventional tillage practices were adopted, while conservation practices were adopted in almost one-fifth of the area, while zero tillage was rarely applied (left pie chart). A similar trend emerges in the right pie chart focusing only on the tillable area.

The worldwide differences between industrialized and subsistence-based systems highlight the contradictory possibilities and challenges in agriculture across different areas, demonstrating the necessity for specialized strategies to ensure long-term outputs [80]. Agroforestry includes trees in agricultural systems in extremely hot parts of the world to improve sustainability, while organic practices promoting crop rotation and biological pest management are becoming increasingly popular in Europe and North America. Modern agricultural methods that use selective breeding programs and efficient irrigation systems provide high-yield crops but can degrade the environment, while traditional practices promote sustainable practices and soil health but are costly and less manageable [35]. Farming practices are influenced by several geographical and climatic parameters, including the landscape and soil type as well as socio-economic considerations (employment opportunities, the ownership of property, and economic development) [81]. Globally, sustainable agricultural development depends on balancing ancient and contemporary practices [75]. Modifying or adjusting farming methods to local conditions is frequently required to improve soil health. However, some general approaches are used in all agricultural systems and are related to constantly maintaining living root systems or covering the soil, minimizing the use of synthetic fertilizers and increasing the organic matter naturally, boosting the variety of crops, and reducing or eliminating pesticides.

5. Sustainable Soil Management Practices for Improving Soil Health

Sustainable soil management practices include agricultural practices that maximize the use of renewable resources and support the expansion and preservation of ecosystems [80]. Sustainable farming techniques provide low-cost, environmentally friendly solutions to produce high yields and agricultural products while maintaining future generations’ access to food or overall health. Achieving sustainability in agriculture requires the use of certain management practices designed to minimize the long-term impacts of human activities on natural resources [82,83]. The key, most successful practices include conservative tillage (no-till and reduced-till systems), soil organic carbon farming, crop rotation, the use of cover crops, integrated pest management (IPM), the use of precision agriculture technologies, and the use of sustainable agroforestry technology [84].

5.1. Conservative Tillage Practices

Tillage practices considerably impact soil health by changing fundamental physical, chemical, and biological components influencing soil function and the crop yield [75]. According to numerous studies [85,86], selective tillage practices provide an optimized method to address particular soil restrictions while reducing the total soil disturbance. Soil parameters like the available water in the soil, porosity, bulk density, soil organic carbon content, nutrient availability, and microbial activity are all modified by different tillage practices, including conventional tillage, deep tillage, or no-tillage systems [87].

The factors driving the emergence and adoption of conservation tillage include the negative impact of plow-based tillage on soil degradation through erosion and the loss of organic carbon, increasing the energy costs for tillage operations. Additionally, supportive government policies in developed countries, challenges in disposing of crop residues in intensive cereal-based systems, limited time for field preparation in high-intensity cropping, the availability of tillage equipment that enables seeding with minimal soil disturbance and crop residue disruption, and the positive effects of conservation tillage when combined with various resource-conserving technologies are factors in the adoption of conservative tillage [81]. The beneficial impact of this tillage strategy on soil health is evidenced by the three aforementioned principles of conservation agriculture, and the expansion of conservation tillage areas has economic advantages for stakeholders, whether tangible or intangible.

The soil health benefits associated with conservation tillage include the following [81]:

• A reduction in soil erosion: Conservation tillage significantly reduces soil erosion by wind and water by enhancing the ground cover, which decreases the soil erodibility. The retained crop residues act as a protective layer, limiting the direct impact of raindrops and wind, which helps in maintaining the soil structure and minimizing particle detachment and displacement.
• An increase in the SOC: A core principle of conservation tillage is maintaining at least 30% surface cover with crop residues, which facilitates the accumulation of organic carbon in the soil. This organic carbon is a crucial measure of soil health, enhancing the soil structure, fertility, and tolerance to environmental stressors while functioning as a carbon sink to alleviate climate change.
• Enhanced microbial health: The practice promotes microbial diversity and biomass by providing an ample supply of organic matter, which serves as a food source for soil microorganisms. Increased microbial activity supports nutrient cycling, enhances nitrogen fixation, and improves soil enzymatic functions, all of which contribute to plant health and soil resilience.
• Enhanced physical soil characteristics: Conservation tillage improves essential physical characteristics, including the water-holding capacity, soil aggregation, infiltration rate, porosity, bulk density, and soil strength. These improvements promote root growth, increase the water availability, and decrease the risk of soil compaction, resulting in more robust crop performance and resilience.
• Nutrient supply from crop residues: Crop residues contribute essential nutrients like nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium as they decompose, which enhances the chemical health of the soil. This natural nutrient recycling reduces the dependency on synthetic fertilizers, supports sustainable nutrient management, and promotes a balanced soil ecosystem.
• Enhanced chemical soil properties: Conservation tillage positively impacts the soil’s chemical properties, such as its temperature moderation, pH buffering, nutrient retention, and ion exchange capacity. These benefits contribute to a stable environment for root development, improve the nutrient availability, and increase the soil’s resilience to acidification or salinization.
• The control of soil salinity: Preserving crop remains on the soil surface diminishes evaporation, hence aiding in the regulation of root zone salinity. Minimized evaporation restricts the ascension of salts, which may concentrate near the soil surface and impede plant growth, therefore promoting enhanced crop vitality in saline-affected soils [18,88].

Despite its benefits, conservation tillage presents some challenges; competing uses for crop residues can limit their availability as ground cover, while their decomposition can immobilize nitrogen, temporarily reducing its availability for plants. Additionally, residues may harbor pests, pathogens, and termites, interfere with crop germination, and prevent and obscure the application of manure and fertilizers. Diversifying crop species in conservation tillage systems, particularly by including legumes and grasses, helps reduce nutrient depletion in specific soil layers and restores fertility. Legumes contribute nitrogen through fixation, while grasses improve the organic matter content, both of which enhance the soil health and productivity over time.

Over time, research on tillage methodologies, encompassing conventional, minimum, and no-tillage approaches, has demonstrated that conservation tillage, particularly no-tillage, enhances soil quality by augmenting the soil’s organic carbon levels and improving physical and biological metrics such as the soil’s water retention, porosity, and coarse pore structure [89]. The evaluated research demonstrates that decreased tillage and no-tillage methods enhance the soil texture, aggregate stability, and water retention [90,91]. Research in Manitoba, Canada, indicated that no-till and reduced tillage methods enhanced soil attributes, including the bulk density, porosity, and water storage capacity [92]. A study in Brazil indicated that no-tillage systems exhibited reduced compaction, an enhanced air capacity, and superior water retention properties, underscoring the advantages of minimized soil disturbance for soil quality enhancement [93,94]. Mafongoya et al. [95] performed a meta-analysis of several conservation strategies in Zimbabwe to assess the overall maize production relative to that using conventional agriculture practices. For instance, utilizing CA practices such as direct seeding, rip-line seeding, and planting basin seeding resulted in yields of 241 kg/ha, 258 kg/ha, and 445 kg/ha, respectively [95]. Mathew et al. [96] noted that the bacterial diversity was greater under zero tillage circumstances than with conventional tillage. Babu et al. [97] asserted that soils managed using CA have enhanced surface layers characterized by elevated organic matter content, microbial biomass carbon, microbial biomass nitrogen, and enzyme activities compared to soils subjected to conventional tillage [98]. Conventional tillage may adversely impact the soil structure and health over time, but research has indicated that conservation and decreased tillage methods frequently enhance soil health indices.

5.2. Carbon Farming and Soil Organic Carbon (SOC)

Recently, carbon farming has grown in popularity as a sustainable management practice in both the agricultural and forestry sectors, which enable the sustainable production of food and related products [99]. The primary focus of carbon farming is increasing the rate at which CO₂ is removed from the atmosphere and converted into plant biomass and soil organic carbon (SOC) and matter [100]. This improves soil fertility, boosts crop yields, and enhances the potential for long-term carbon sequestration, all of which reduce atmospheric greenhouse gas concentrations.

The SOC content, an essential indication of soil health and important in carbon farming, pertains to materials originating from biotic entities in the soil, encompassing soil bacteria, soil fauna, plants, and their exudates. SOC can be categorized into four types based on its role in soil ecosystems: living organisms (catalysts for soil nutrient transformation), fresh SOC (potential nourishment for soil organisms), decomposing organic matter (an energy source for soil organisms), and stable organic matter within soil aggregates that forms humus (nutrient reservoir with soil-buffering capabilities) [101]. All these carbon types are interconnected and are part of a dynamic equilibrium characterized by inputs from plant residues, root exudates, and possibly organic fertilization and outputs that are mainly in the form of microbial respiration.

Carbon farming is advantageous for improving soil health and raising its capacity to store water and crop yields by improving the soil’s organic content [102]. It facilitates the use of crop rotation and provides advantages in the field of low-input management, as it is economical, ecologically friendly, and enables the establishment of procedures for obtaining funds from carbon credits [103]. Carbon farming practices for managing the soil to increase SOC concentrations encompass the use of cover crops, agroforestry, crop rotation minimizing chemical fertilizers, and reductions in tillage.

The carbon program began in the United States and Europe and is now spreading to Romania as well. Through the implementation of proper reforms to improve factors affecting the efficiency of the use of energy, water, and nutrients, Romanian agriculture can achieve a carbon economy. Studies in the field of agriculture in Romania have highlighted the significant influence of different tillage systems on the organic carbon content in the soil. Conservative agriculture, as a part of carbon farming marked by the low application of chemical fertilizers and minimal or no tillage, has positively affected the organic carbon levels in the soil. For example, a study conducted by Birsan et al. [104] showed that compared to conservative agriculture, conventional tillage soils have an organic carbon content approximately 1.5–2.0% lower than that of soils covered with spontaneous vegetation. This decrease in organic carbon is associated with soil degradation and the loss of its structure, caused by erosion and excessive resource use.

According to research conducted by Ioniță [105], soils managed through CA exhibit an organic carbon content of 3.0–4.5%, representing a significant increase compared to conventional systems [106]. Additionally, Popescu [107] reported that systems with spontaneous vegetation can store between 4.0 and 6.0% organic carbon in the soil due to the contribution of perennial vegetation to improvements in the soil structure and biodiversity [108]. A study by Barbu et al. [109] demonstrated that the application of integrated soil management approaches resulted in a 40% increase in organic carbon stocks in specific sections of the country. This augmentation was ascribed to the enhancement of the soil composition and the diversification of flora. In a comparative analysis of ecological and conventional management systems in plum orchards, Rusu et al. [110] observed that ecological management systems generated a higher organic carbon content compared to conventional ones. This suggests that ecological management practices not only improve soil quality but also contribute to carbon sequestration, having a positive impact on climate change. Another study emphasized that ecological practices contribute to a reduction in heavy metal contamination, which is essential for soil and ecosystem health [111]. This aligns with the conclusions of Morya et al. [112], who underscored the importance of monitoring soil health and its chemical composition to assess the effects of various management practices on SOC stocks. Cara et al. [113] mentioned the use of biochar as an effective and sustainable strategy for remediating pesticide-contaminated soils, with the capacity to store organic carbon in the soil over the long term, thereby reducing risks to human health and the environment. This aids in diminishing carbon dioxide emissions in the atmosphere, positively influencing climate change. Țopa et al. [114] highlighted the impact of different tillage systems (no-tillage, chisel, and conventional tillage) on soil carbon stocks. The study indicated that transitioning from conventional tillage to no-tillage and min-tillage systems can lead to a significant increase in carbon stocks. For example, the shift to no-tillage was associated with an increase in carbon stocks of up to 25–30% compared to conventional tillage. The study emphasized that factors such as the soil type, climate, and agricultural management significantly influence the soil’s capacity to store organic carbon. In a 12-year field experiment assessing the impact of the crop residue input on SOC stock stability, Lin et al. [115] discovered that increased crop straw inputs resulted in elevated SOC stock levels, while soil aggregation and dissolved organic carbon influenced SOC mineralization and governed SOC stability. Poblete-Grant et al. [116] observed that soils modified with composted poultry manure enhanced the crop root biomass, hence transferring greater amounts of root-derived organic matter to SOC pools.

The concentration of SOC is not inherently equal to the quantity of fresh carbon inputs, as the introduction of fresh organic material can facilitate the mineralization of pre-existing soil carbon, a phenomenon referred to as the ‘priming effect.’ The ‘priming impact’ of fresh organic residues may fluctuate based on the soil physicochemical characteristics and human activities. In a crop rotation experiment, the rotation of rice and wheat resulted in a greater reduction in the SOC concentration compared to maize–wheat and cotton–wheat rotation systems, attributed to a decline in the water-extractable carbon, microbial biomass carbon, carbon preservation capacity of macro-, micro-, and water-stable aggregates, and the silt–clay-associated carbon fraction [117]. Fine-grained minerals (<20 μm), oxides, and hydroxides are essential for the stabilization of SOC, as they restrict the oxygen availability for decomposers, limit the accessibility of organic compounds to the soil microbial community, and consequently prevent organic carbon from leaching through organo-mineral interactions.

Additionally, diverse agronomic approaches can enhance the SOC concentration and should be prioritized in agronomic strategies: (i) The selection of plant genotypes or species affects root exudates, hence influencing the type and number of microorganisms within the soil ecosystem [118]. Incorporating annual legumes into cereal- or oilseed-centric rotations can enhance the conversion of atmospheric N₂ into bioavailable nitrogen by diazotrophs [119]. Furthermore, utilizing red clover or beans as cover crops before wheat cultivation in rotation can augment the fungal community diversity and enhance soil health [120].

Another effect of an increased SOC content is the minimization of soil disturbances, which enhances the soil microbial variety and biomass, hence sustaining the soil microbial diversity and activity [121]. Employing a suitable stubble height and planting orientation to trap snow during winter and conserve water in summer can enhance the water availability and enhance soil health [122,123].

The application of organic fertilizers [124] enhances the soil microbial community, preserves the soil pH stability (thereby ensuring its compatibility with various microorganisms), mitigates soil acidification, and promotes the secretion of specific extracellular enzymes, while augmenting the activities of essential enzymes involved in soil carbon and nitrogen cycling (e.g., invertase, urease, catalase, N-acetyl-β-glucosaminidase) [125]. Furthermore, crop productivity and nutrient cycling in soils have been demonstrated to benefit from integrated fertilizer techniques that incorporate organic, biological, and mineral fertilizers, improving interactions between bacterial and fungal communities [126]. The combined impact of these enhancements results in improved water retention, decreased erosion, and generally better soil ecosystems, highlighting the crucial role that the fertilizer type plays in sustainable soil management techniques. Therefore, the deliberate application of organic fertilizers promotes long-term soil health and productivity in addition to improving the physical characteristics of the soil [127,128,129].

5.3. Crop Rotation

Crop rotation is a fundamental strategy that involves growing a variety of crop species sequentially in a defined succession over time. Furthermore, crop rotation is also an environmentally friendly agriculture practice that can enhance soil health and lessen the need for agrochemicals, minimize the pressures from pests and weeds, and boost crop yields [129].

Recently, crop diversity has been declining, which is concerning because crop rotation has frequently been reduced to cereal-based rotations. Due to pedoclimatic circumstances, the uncertain economic returns of other crops, particularly grain legumes, and the rising industrial need for cereals, rotations have been replaced by cereal-based monocultures, which have resulted in a decrease in crop diversification. Additionally, numerous semi-arid regions globally rely on cereals, such as monoculture wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) or cereals cycled with summer fallow (i.e., fields left uncultivated for one growing season). Although summer fallow practices can preserve soil moisture throughout the fallow period [130], release nitrogen from residues for crop growth in the following season [131], and manage problematic grasses [132], excessive summer fallowing may result in soil degradation, losses of SOM [133], and an elevated carbon footprint for production [134]. Alternatives to cereal–fallow monoculture are diversified cropping systems that include (i) annual legumes, like dry peas, lentils, and chickpeas; (ii) oilseeds, like mustard (Brassica juncea L.), canola, and camelina (Camelina sativa L.); and (iii) specialty crops, like buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum L.), canary seed (Phalaris canariensis L.), and industrial hemp (Cannabis sativa ssp. sativa). Various crops can be organized within in-field strip rotations to enhance crop system diversity. Research indicates that diversified systems incorporating different crops can enhance the soil resource utilization efficiency [135], yielding a greater output per unit of land and requiring fewer inputs compared to monocultures. On the other hand, grain legumes and cover crops can improve soil water conservation, system productivity, the soil organic carbon (SOC) content, and microbial activity and diversity. This is because they increase C-rich root exudates, nutrients, moisture, and ambient oxygen, all of which improve the physical health of the soil. Varying rotations with grain legumes or cover crops, in addition to conservation tillage, may additionally support an increase in SOC, aggregate stability, and biological soil health. Furthermore, legume-based rotation with cereals can improve soil nitrogen levels, as legumes fix atmospheric nitrogen via their root nodules, hence decreasing the necessity for synthetic fertilizers. For instance, crop rotation can be customized to suit local conditions and market requirements, thereby enhancing both the environmental and economic results. Legume-based crop diversity combined with no-till methods enhances the soil structure, water and nutrient availability, and soil functionality [136], establishing a new framework for crops to utilize soil resources [137]. Crop variation, in conjunction with no-till practices, results in enhanced soil aggregation and carbon sequestration [138]. In temperate southwestern France, the incorporation of legumes between cash crops reduced CO₂ emissions by 50–102% relative to those of a cropping system excluding legumes [139]. In the semi-arid regions of northwestern India, the rotation of groundnuts (Arachis hypogaea L.), wheat, cluster beans (Cyamopsis tetragonoloba L.), and onions (Allium cepa L.) enhanced productivity by 45% and profitability by 61% and reduced the carbon footprint of production by 22% in comparison to a rotation of pearl millet (Cenchrus americanus L.) and wheat [140]. Consequently, creating diversity using legumes is a potent technique for enhancing soil ecosystems and benefiting human society. A meta-analysis performed by [141,142] emphasized the benefits of diverse rotations for soil’s physical health and system resilience. Increased crop diversification in rotations reduced the bulk density, enhanced soil aggregation, improved the porosity, and elevated the saturated hydraulic conductivity. Because the presence of different root systems improves the number and network integrity of micro- and macro-pores, it has been linked to beneficial impacts on the physical health of the soil. The physical features of the soil, including the aggregate stability, bulk density, infiltration rate, porosity, and saturated hydraulic conductivity, govern crop performance, in addition to other soil processes and characteristics like the water availability and storage, nutrient cycling, and soil erosion. Water infiltration is impacted by an improved SOC content, aggregate stability, and structure, which lowers the soil erodibility and increases nutrient protection in aggregates. Additionally, the transport of water and nutrients in soils is controlled by the saturated hydraulic conductivity and infiltration rate, but a higher bulk density might hinder the water flow and root penetration, reducing the crop output. Because they have a major impact on crop performance as well as the transport of water and nutrients in soils, these physical characteristics of soil are important markers of soil health. Despite the fact that much research has documented the impact of crop diversity on soil’s physical health over a broad spectrum of management techniques and environmental conditions, it is still debatable how exactly crop rotation enhances soil health.

5.4. Cover Crops and Mulching Management

The management of cover crops can improve the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. Its advantages encompass heightened soil nutrient accessibility and organic carbon levels, diminished soil compaction, enhanced aggregation, and augmented microbial diversity, abundance, and activity. Multiple studies have shown that incorporating cover crops into agricultural systems can enhance soil health by improving its physical qualities [143,144,145]. Cover crops can increase soil water retention by around 1–4% during wheat sowing in the 0–45 cm soil profile, maximizing the soil water availability for subsequent crops and reducing the bulk density by 17%.

Cover crops, including winter rye (Secale cereale L.), triticale (Triticosecale rimpaui), and barley (Hordeum vulgare L.), are mostly grown to mitigate soil erosion and stabilize the soil surface with active root systems. To sustain soil health and maintain SOC concentrations, a green manure crop, generally an annual legume, such as Indian head lentils, chickling vetch (Lathyrus sativus L.), or red clover (Melilotus officinalis), is cultivated post-harvest and integrated into the soil before the subsequent planting [120]. Adding cover crops can help absorb the available soil nutrients, hence mitigating nutrient losses due to leaching or surface runoff.

Cover crops possess multiple functions, offering numerous advantages. The incorporation of cover crops can enhance the soil water storage capacity by increasing the soil water content at various pressures, specifically 0–33, −33, and −100 kPa, by 23%, 25%, and 28%, respectively, in comparison to in the absence of cover crop management [146,147].

Soils managed with cover crops typically exhibit enhanced water penetration and reduced water evaporation, runoff, and erosion compared to soils lacking cover crops. In soils exhibiting elevated surface hydraulic conductivity, the implementation of a cover crop can significantly diminish runoff [148]. In regions with heavy precipitation, cover crops like common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), vetch (Vicia sativa L.), white clover (Trifolium repens L.), and crimson clover (Trifolium incarnatum L.) safeguard the soil from the impact of raindrops, hence mitigating soil erosion and runoff. Secondly, cover crops enhance nutrient cycling by holding nutrients in the soil and augmenting biological activity. Cover crops can improve disease and pest management [149,150] by promoting microbial diversity, which results in a plethora of natural antagonists. The integration of cover crops with sustained no-till practices can effectively enhance soil health. In Europe, permanent cover crops achieved effective erosion management; however, alternating and temporary cover crops in regions with constrained water supplies did not yield advantages [151].

Cover crops enhance the soil surface coverage [152,153], mitigate soil erosion [154], augment the water infiltration into the soil [155], and improve the soil hydrothermal conditions, thereby fostering beneficial microbiomes [154,156] that enhance carbon cycling [157].

Mulch, whether organic (e.g., straw, agricultural residues, wood chips, leaves) or inorganic (e.g., gravel, plastic film, volcanic ash), enhances soil health by holding moisture, controlling the temperature, suppressing weeds, preventing erosion, improving fertility, and mitigating the impact of pests and diseases [158]. Mulch enhances the hydraulic roughness of soil surfaces and retains additional water, hence reducing the surface water flow and transport capacity [159,160]. Kachala grass and sludge pellet mulch enhance soil moisture retention, the organic matter content, the nutrient availability, and enzyme activity. Live mulch-based conservation tillage markedly enhances soil properties and increases productivity, as evidenced in maize systems in the Indian Himalayas. This method diminishes the bulk density, augments the water retention capacity, and improves the nitrogen accessibility, hence fostering an advantageous soil environment for maize cultivation [161]. A study in Liaoning, China, revealed that the combination of straw mulching and fall mulching markedly improved the water use efficiency and production in spring maize, particularly in semi-arid regions [162]. In rice paddy systems, different rates of straw return substantially influenced the soil structure, organic carbon levels, and crop yield, with partial straw inclusion enhancing soil fertility and mitigating nutrient runoff concerns [163]. These findings underscore the significance of selective mulching and straw return techniques in preserving soil health and enhancing the crop output within agroecosystems.

5.5. Organic Amendments

An efficient method to preserve or increase soil health and maintain an optimal soil organic matter content is introducing organic amendments to soils [164]. Organic amendments, including manure, compost, and plant residue, have been viewed as a successful alternative to chemical fertilizers, considering that they can increase the soil fertility and provide important nutrients that are essential to soil health [75].

Organic amendments improve the soil’s physical characteristics, which benefits soil ecosystems, efficient root growth, water conservation, and soil aeration [165]. Sewage sludge, farmyard manure, and poultry litter are examples of organic sources of nutrients that improve soil health, lessen the reliance on chemicals, and establish an agricultural system that is sustainable on all levels, socially, environmentally, and economically [166]. For instance, the cultivation of leguminous plants and their in situ trampling during the flowering phase through tillage or the incorporation of leaves is termed green manuring. The importance of green manuring crops has been acknowledged [167] due to their ability to supply nitrogen [168] and improve the SOC content [169]; their diverse impacts on crop production [170] and the quantification of these effects across various crops and locations are gaining attention concurrently. Green manuring is predominantly practiced in rice-based cropping systems, particularly in irrigated rice ecosystems [171]. In contrast, brown manuring involves the co-culture of Sesbania and rice, where Sesbania is knocked down using the herbicide 2,4-D 40–50 days after sowing. This practice is more common in upland rice systems and is noted for its effectiveness in controlling weeds in direct-seeded rice [172,173]. The significance of green and brown manuring in improving soil health has been articulated by several authors and is explained in

Table 3. Impact of green and brown manuring on soil health.

Name of Crop	Practice	Impact on Soil Health	References
Maize	Green manuring (Orychophragmus violaceus) resulted in three distinct levels of the suggested nutrient dosage (100%, 85%, and 75%; the advised nutrient treatment rates are 225 kg N, 49 kg P, and 94 kg K, respectively).	The combination of green manuring crops contributed 21.5–94 kg of nitrogen, 2.2–9.8 kg of phosphorus, and 21.2–99.2 kg of potassium per hectare. Additionally, there was an enhancement in the microbial biomass nitrogen, dissolved organic nitrogen, and mineral nitrogen concentrations within the 0–20 cm soil layer at the third and eighth fully expanded leaf stages.	Yang et al. [168]
Rice	Cultivation of Sesbania aculeata and Crotalaria juncea, followed by incorporation and transplantation of rice.	Enhancement of the SOC content and the availability of nitrogen and phosphorus resulting from the integration of both green manure crops.	Singh et al. [173]
Rice	Integration of brown manuring with herbicide application (pre-emergence use of butachlor, pendimethalin, pretilachlor, and benthiocarb) in direct-seeded rice.	Improvement in the partial factor productivity of nitrogenous, phosphatic, and potassic fertilizers, hence diminishing their impact on soil and groundwater contamination.	Maity and Mukherjee [174]
Rice-based cropping system	Planting of green manure crops following the harvest of the second-season rice crop and integrating them through plowing before the sowing of the subsequent rice crop.	Green manure considerably enhanced phosphatase and urease activity.	Qaswar et al. [175]
Rice	Cultivation of directly sown aerobic rice with brown manuring of Sesbania, succeeded by no-till wheat cultivation.	Augmentation of total nitrogen, organic carbon, microbial biomass carbon, and microbial biomass nitrogen concentrations in the soil.	Nawaz et al. [176]
Rice	Directly wet-seeded rice.	Beneficial impact on soil health via nitrogen cycling as Sesbania aculeata sequestered 32.4 kg of nitrogen, 3.65 kg of phosphorus, and 16.0 kg of potassium per hectare in its biomass without the application of fertilizers, rendering these nutrients readily accessible to rice.	Gangaiah and Prasad Babu [177]
Rice–rapeseed cropping system	Conventional tillage system (residue removal) and no-tillage system with residue retention; brown manuring of cowpeas and mulching of Gliricidia in both tillage systems.	The brown manuring of cowpeas and the mulching of Gliricidia enhanced the SOC pool, carbon sequestration rate, and carbon retention efficiency.	Yadav et al. [178]
Rice–wheat cropping system	The direct seeding of rice, followed by brown manuring and subsequently wheat production, was successful in the sodic soil of the Indo-Gangetic region.	Augmentation of SOC and microbial biomass carbon concentrations resulting from brown manuring.	Mishra et al. [179]
Rice–mustard cropping system	Zero-tillage direct-seeded rice cultivation accompanied by brown manuring, succeeded by zero-tillage mustard cultivation, with retention of residues from both crops.	Enhancement in the soil quality index (SQI) following the traditional practice of puddled transplanted rice cultivation succeeded by standard-tillage mustard cultivation. The SQI was computed using the saturated hydraulic conductivity, pH, total nitrogen, available phosphorus, and available potassium.	Das et al. [180]

. All these data indicate that both green and brown manuring substantially increase soil health, facilitate crop enhancement, and diminish the need for artificial fertilizers. Green manure possesses significant promise as a vital source of crop nutrition in organic agriculture. Green manure crops occupy the soil for 40 to 55 days, during which a single productive crop can be grown. During this time, sufficient soil moisture is essential for effective decomposition and nutrient release for current-season crops, which constitutes a principal limitation in rainfed agriculture. Additional costs are incurred for the procurement of seeds and the management of nutrients, particularly phosphorus, for green manure crops, as well as for the termination of brown manure crops. The following limitations impede the extensive adoption of green or brown manuring by farmers [172].

Manure and straw are examples of organic amendments that effectively sequester soil organic carbon (SOC); in nitrogen-deficient soils, the use of manure exhibits higher SOC increases, whereas straw works better in soils that are nitrogen-enriched [150]. These results highlight the significance of customized amendment strategies that take the soil nutrient status into account for the best possible soil carbon sequestration and to preserve soil health.

5.6. Crop Waste and Agro-Industrial By-Products

Agriculture is one of the sectors that generates the most biomass waste, a rich source of plant nutrients that can play a crucial role in protecting agriculture from the adverse effects derived from synthetic fertilizers [181]. Recycling waste materials originating from agriculture into valuable by-products can improve soil health and sustain agricultural plant growth [182]. Approximately 40% of biomass waste consists of carbon, and crop waste (residues) is the main source of organic matter that is added to the soil and an excellent source of plant nutrients [183]. The main constituents of organic matter include proteins, lignin lipids, and carbohydrates (such as cellulose). Their capacity to produce the enzymes necessary for the organic matter’s breakdown determines their capacity to consume it [184]. For example, wheat and rice stalks and leaves contain a certain quantity of phosphorus and nitrogen and the highest proportions of potassium and sulfur. The rate at which carbon inputs are added to a given soil type and the climate are crucial determinants of how much organic matter may be retained in the soil. The immediate and long-term impacts of applying rice straw under upland and flooded soil conditions were investigated by [50]. The results showed that compared to no rice straw application (18.20 mg g⁻¹), continuous rice straw application at a rate of 5 mg ha⁻¹ year⁻¹ for 12 years raised the soil’s total C content (21.60 mg g⁻¹).

Arable crop production covers the highest percentage of the total cultivated area compared to other types of crops, including horticultural crops. Given the harvest index of arable crops and the nutritional composition of their residues [185], these may serve as viable solutions for diversifying nutrient supplies in agriculture. The use of crop waste has several benefits, such as improved soil fertility and health, which raises the soil biodiversity and agricultural output. Crop waste may have an impact on the soil pH and electrical conductivity, with the pattern of changes in these parameters being influenced by the waste’s chemical composition and the soil characteristics [186]. Additionally, the impact of crop waste on the soil pH is controlled by soil properties such as the texture, temperature, moisture content, available N, and SOC content [187]. Compost obtained from maize stover had the highest total porosity (49.05%), followed by that obtained from rice straw (47.87%) [188]. The addition of straw + NPK in a rice–wheat cropping system increased the total soil porosity (46.30%) and decreased the bulk density (1.42 Mg m⁻³) in the 0–15 cm soil layer [189]. In the humid and sub-humid regions of Africa, no-till cultivation combined with the use of waste residues is an effective method of reducing soil compaction [190].

The primary objectives for advancing the utilization of crop waste as a nutritional resource encompass the formulation of logistical and policy strategies for its application, the combination of diverse types of crop waste to improve the nutrient density and expedite nutrient release, and the identification of economical, site-specific methods for transforming crop waste into an appropriate source of nutrition.

Utilizing crop waste as a source of crop nutrition presents a mutually beneficial scenario, as it mitigates agricultural waste, decreases pollution and environmental impacts, and enhances the diversification of nutrient management systems that are predominantly reliant on chemical fertilizers [191]. The cultivation of legumes within cereal-dominated cropping systems, the modification of nutrient management strategies to address nitrogen requirements for the in situ decomposition of high-C:N-ratio crop waste, the enhancement of the seeding machine availability for waste retention, and the adaptation of harvesting techniques to preserve adequate residue levels in the soil on marginal farms should be regarded as viable options to engage stakeholders in the utilization of crop residues as a potential source of crop nutrition [192].

Waste is also produced during the processing and value addition of agricultural products to render them acceptable for consumption. Significant waste from the processing sector encompasses sugarcane factory by-products (bagasse and molasses), waste from rice and wheat milling, waste from the fruit and vegetable processing sector, waste from both edible and non-edible oil extraction, waste produced during the marketing of perishable goods, and food waste. The utilization of agro-industrial waste is limited due to certain residues produced by these industries having more economically viable applications, rendering them unavailable as nutrient sources; additionally, some unutilized residues require treatment before being employed as sources of nutrients for crops. Data regarding the use of these pre-treatments and facilities at the community or individual farmer level will be beneficial for improving their utilization. A further challenge is the logistics of using agro-industrial waste due to its substantial volume. The use of crop residues and agro-industrial waste plays a vital role in enhancing soil health. Increasing the SOC concentration enhances the cation exchange capacity, base saturation, and micronutrient chelation, ultimately stabilizing the soil’s pH and improving its chemical health. Furthermore, they supply nourishment and energy to increase microbial diversity, enhancing the population of advantageous soil bacteria. Their application also alleviates physical soil degradation by enhancing features such as aggregation and infiltration rates [192,193].

5.7. Soil Amendments

The incorporation of slowly decomposing soil amendments, such as compost and biochar, is a crucial management approach for enhancing SOC reserves [194]. Soil supplements are primarily used to modify the soil pH to within an appropriate range, hence improving soil health. Soil reactions, the convertible sodium percentage, and the electrical conductivity are used to classify soil into saline, sodic, and saline–sodic groups. In saline soil, the leaching of soluble salts below the root zone is performed using a sufficient amount of fresh water. Limestone and iron pyrite are chemical soil amendments that may be integrated. Gypsum, sulfur, iron sulfate, and iron pyrite may be integrated to ameliorate sodic soil conditions. Acidic soil is improved through liming with calcium oxide, calcium hydroxide, dolomite, calcite, or basic slag. In acidic soils, the use of liming materials mitigates dangerous concentrations of metals such as Fe, Mn, and Al, enhances the bioavailability of vital minerals including P, Ca, Mg, and K, and fosters microbial activity and variety. Together, these enhancements rejuvenate soil health, rendering it appropriate for agricultural cultivation. Soil additives markedly improve soil health by enhancing qualities including aggregation, the porosity, and the infiltration rate, while decreasing the exchangeable sodium levels and adjusting sodic soil’s pH towards neutrality [195].

For saline soils, crops like mustard, barley, cotton, and sugar beet are recommended, while for sodic/alkali soils, Karnal grass, para grass, Rhodes grass, rice, sugar beet, and green manure crops such as dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) are suitable [196,197]. Additional measures include pre-sowing, irrigation with an excessive amount of water to leach salts, frequent shallow irrigation, the use of high-quality irrigation water, and the use of organic mulches to minimize evaporation losses and reduce the movement of salt toward the soil surface.

Cultivation strategies improve the soil’s physical qualities and foster the growth of microbial populations and variety, hence considerably enhancing soil health. The addition of organic matter through crop growth, mulch application, and the favorable microclimate created by irrigation boosts microbial activity, thereby improving the biological health of the soil [198]. Incorporating organic matter amendments, including composts, manures, mulches, and biosolids, supplies active organic matter that nourishes crops and improves the soil’s physical (water retention, bulk density), chemical (pH), and biological qualities [199]. In dryland Mediterranean farming, composted sewage sludge and pig slurry have been shown to be useful in enhancing the nutrient availability without significant nitrate accumulation, which is essential in semi-arid environments [200]. In arid areas, composted organic waste and farmyard manure enhance soil water retention and aggregate stability, which are crucial for sustained crop production [201]. Compost, derived from organic waste, improves soil aeration, water retention, and microbial activity. In semi-arid vineyard environments, organic amendments like compost and manure were observed to enhance soil fertility and the grape yield [202]. Organic amendments such as manure and straw efficiently absorb SOC, with manure enhancing the SOC concentration more significantly in nitrogen-deficient soils, while straw proves more beneficial in nitrogen-rich soils [200]. These findings underscore the necessity for customized amendment procedures contingent upon the soil nutrient status to enhance carbon sequestration. In certain instances, organic additions may result in the accumulation of pollutants in the soil, potentially leading to toxicity concerns [203]. Incorporating stabilized organic materials, such as mature compost, mitigates these hazards by reducing the nitrogen and phosphorus runoff, enhancing nutrient retention, and minimizing the environmental consequences [204]. Although organic amendments have distinct advantages, meticulous management is essential to optimize soil health and alleviate possible adverse consequences.

5.8. Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

IPM combines many strategies to regulate pest populations while reducing the dependence on chemical pesticides. This environmentally sustainable strategy encompasses preventive techniques, including crop rotation, the selection of pest-resistant cultivars, and the implementation of physical barriers. IPM aims to diminish insect damage through monitoring and targeted actions, ensuring economic viability and environmental sustainability [18,100].

Implementing IPM strategies safeguards crops against diseases and pests while fostering a healthy ecosystem, resulting in a healthier crop yield. Moreover, an IPM approach can be applied to conservation tillage and the use of organic amendments, which can improve the soil structure and nutrient retention, hence enhancing the nutritional content of crops cultivated in these conditions [205].

IPM encompasses strategies such as the concurrent management and integration of techniques, the systematic monitoring of pests and their natural predators, and the implementation of decision thresholds, as well as chemical product management or substitution and the comprehensive redesign of agroecosystems [206]. The diminished application of synthetic pesticides enhances both on-farm and off-farm sustainability while reducing costs for the farmer. Besides pest management, IPM systems can provide many ecosystem goods and services, enhancing the overall farm and landscape resilience. IPM systems serve as a primary defense against pests, preventing their emergence by controlling crops, lawns, or indoor environments. This may involve the implementation of cultural practices such as crop rotation, the use of pest-resistant cultivars, and the planting of rootstock. These management solutions can be highly effective and economical, causing minimal or no harm to humans or the environment [84,207]. The efficacy of IPM can be improved by using strategies such as cultivating resistant varieties, soil enrichment, irrigation, and the use of various agronomic controls. IPM mitigates crop losses due to pests and diminishes the environmental repercussions of pesticides, resulting in increased agricultural yields. A study revealed that the implementation of IPM in rice farming across Asia resulted in a 64% reduction in pesticide usage and a 14% increase in yields [208]. Furthermore, research conducted by Saliu et al. [209] demonstrated that sustainable practices such as crop rotation, cover cropping, conservation tillage, organic farming, and IPM can augment yields, enhance soil health, and promote soil biodiversity, nutrient cycling, and increases in organic matter, hence boosting ecosystem resilience.

5.9. Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)

INM is a strategy designed to optimize the use of agricultural residues and produce superior compost through the combination of organic and inorganic fertilizers. This balanced approach guarantees the preservation of soil fertility and supplies plants with the essential nutrients required for optimal productivity throughout their life cycle [210,211]. INM is a method for sustaining agricultural productivity while concurrently safeguarding the environment for future generations [212]. This method involves the meticulous use of chemical fertilizers alongside organic materials [213]. It integrates organic and inorganic fertilizer sources to optimize the crop output, mitigate soil degradation, and enhance the soil water infiltration, all of which are essential for future food security [214,215]. Recent studies have indicated that biobased mineral fertilizers derived from organic waste are viable alternatives to conventional fertilizers, improving soil health and maintaining comparable biomass productivity in crops such as maize without dramatically affecting the soil microbiome composition [216,217]. Biobased mineral fertilizers facilitate the proliferation of microorganisms advantageous for plant growth, enhancing nutrient cycling and preserving the soil structure, essential for sustained soil productivity [218]. Furthermore, integrated fertilizer strategies that mix organic, biological, and mineral fertilizers have demonstrated beneficial impacts on crop outputs and nutrient cycling in soils, improving interactions among fungal and bacterial populations [219]. Attaining long-term food security requires a balance between agricultural production and environmental sustainability.

Scientists have identified four key components of the INM system: (1) maximizing the use of diverse nutrient sources for higher efficiency and yields [210,220]; (2) assessing the soil nutrient balance and nutrient availability in the root zone; (3) minimizing nutrient losses, especially in intensive farming [215,220]; and (4) optimizing the plant–nutrient relationship to achieve high yields, water efficiency, superior grain quality, economic benefits, and sustainability [221]. The goal of INM is to combine natural and synthetic nutrients to enhance the agricultural output while preserving soil productivity for future generations. It focuses on optimizing nutrient use across cropping systems or rotations, encouraging long-term thinking and the consideration of environmental impacts. INM supports sustainable economic yields, preserves soil fertility, minimizes pollution, and promotes environmentally friendly farming practices to produce healthy, contaminant-free food with satisfactory economic returns [209].

5.10. Integrated Farming Systems (IFSs)

The term IFS denotes a more comprehensive approach to agriculture in contrast to monoculture farming. Integrated farming systems refer to agricultural approaches that combine livestock and crop production [222,223]. These systems involve a network of interlinked communities in which the “waste” from one component functions as an input for another [224]. The idea of IFSs entails the integration of many enterprises that augment the central enterprise, typically a cropping system. The resource cycle within IFSs is linked to economic advantages, promoting its adoption by farmers and improving soil health with low financial costs. This reduces costs while improving productivity and/or revenue. Farmers reduce waste by repurposing waste while concurrently increasing the overall yield in the agricultural system [223,225]. Enhancing soil health via resource recycling in IFSs involves multiple solutions. Integrating small animals and poultry, which necessitate minimal investment and utilize on-farm resources, yields nutrient-dense manure to improve the soil quality. Establishing crop waste enrichment facilities such as vermicomposting and composting units enhances the recycling of organic materials. The installation of biogas units facilitates the utilization of nutrient-dense slurry as fertilizer while mitigating methane emissions. Furthermore, growing leguminous species like Leucaena leucocephala and Gliricidia facilitates green manuring, hence enhancing the soil fertility naturally [226].

An IFS enhances soil health by facilitating effective by-product cycling, reducing waste, and improving the biogeochemical cycling of plant nutrients, supporting the soil’s chemical health. Utilizing resources like crop waste for calf feed, mushroom cultivation, or vermicomposting allows the by-products to maintain or even improve their nutritional value, acting as beneficial soil supplements. The synergistic interactions between natural resources and agricultural operations establish a closed nutrient cycle system, enhancing sustainability and promoting long-term soil health [222,227].

Integrated farming emulates natural ecosystems by combining crops with animals, birds, fish, and aquatic flora and fauna to augment the biological variety. This method reduces competition for water, nutrients, and space by utilizing mixed cropping, crop rotation, crop combinations, and intercropping, while implementing environmentally sustainable techniques. Multi-story design enhances space efficiency and promotes interactions between living and non-living elements. Furthermore, it integrates subsystems, facilitating the collaboration of diverse components to enhance agricultural productivity [228].

The advantages of an IFS encompass (a) the optimization of agricultural practices to improve the crop yield and ensure efficient resource use; (b) the recycling of farm waste for productive applications within the system; and (c) the strategic integration of agricultural enterprises such as dairy, poultry, fishery, and sericulture enterprises, customized to the specific agro-climatic and socio-economic contexts [229,230]. Numerous barriers impede the implementation of IFSs, including (a) farmers’ inadequate comprehension of the concept; (b) limited access to agricultural technology; and (c) insufficient financial assistance. Government support is essential for expanding agricultural operations and enhancing farmers’ earnings.

5.11. Agroforestry

Agroforestry, the deliberate integration of agricultural and forestry land use systems, has various advantages that enhance the long-term sustainability of agroecosystems. Agroforestry has been defined as a comprehensive term for land use systems and technologies that intentionally integrate woody perennials with crops and/or livestock within specific arrangements or temporal sequences [231].

Agroforestry can fulfill the nation’s land management requirements by rehabilitating degraded land, preserving sensitive areas, and diversifying agricultural production systems [232]. When employed alongside an ecologically focused land management system, agroforestry techniques can facilitate the conservation of ecosystem variety and processes that promote long-term sustainability and maintain the quality of the environment [233,234]. Agroforestry approaches can substantially enhance ecosystem diversification and processes, essential for long-term sustainability, when integrated within an ecologically focused land management system [235]. Agroforestry integrates agriculture and forestry by creating systems that fulfill both environmental and economic objectives. It can aid agricultural systems in adapting to climate change and alleviating its effects [236].

Agroforestry on agricultural land significantly helps in climate change mitigation; nonetheless, it is not systematically incorporated into global or national carbon accounting. Agroforestry has historically been a prominent characteristic of temperate regions globally [237]. This method offers numerous advantages, including food security, enhanced biodiversity, ecosystem enrichment, and the fulfillment of various environmental objectives, such as regulating atmospheric CO₂ levels within the designated limits, improved soil fertility that elevates vegetable yields, prolonged harvest seasons, superior produce quality, and increased income for rural communities [238].

A primary impediment in implementing agroforestry is resource competition, since trees may compete with crops for light, water, and nutrients, possibly diminishing crop yields and agricultural productivity, particularly in resource-constrained regions [239,240]. Another issue is the intricate management required for agroforestry, necessitating specialized expertise and skills, including the comprehension of tree–crop interactions, the selection of suitable species, and the maintenance of soil health. This complexity may impede adoption, especially for farmers who lack expertise or finances.

5.12. Precision Agriculture Technologies

Precision agriculture technologies are transforming the agriculture sector by increasing its sustainability, effectiveness, and productivity [123]. These innovations integrate modern tools like GPS, satellite remote sensing, and sensor technology, allowing for the more convenient monitoring and management of crop growth and soil health. This concept reduces soil pollution by increasing crop resilience and productivity while decreasing the reliance on chemical fertilizers and pesticides. Farmers can achieve an effective and sustainable agricultural output by modifying fertilization, irrigation, and pest control strategies in response to the monitoring results. Genome editing tools additionally provide a substantial contribution to sustainable agriculture by allowing crop varieties to be developed that are resilient to pests and diseases and climate change. Additionally, genome editing tools can be used to enhance the characteristics of soil microorganisms, encouraging the development and use of advantageous microbes and improving the crop quality and soil health.

To reduce human labor and the usage of chemical pesticides, drones can perform precise crop protection, irrigation, and pesticide treatments (Figure 5). This decreases production costs and minimizes adverse effects on the environment and soil. Drones can also quickly record data about farms, allowing farmers to quickly address issues like pests and climate change.

Integrating drones, gene editing, and precision agriculture technologies can greatly improve soil health, raise crop yields, decrease environmental soil damage, and boost agricultural production’s effectiveness. Consequently, to support sustainable agricultural development, it is imperative to strongly promote the use of contemporary technology in agricultural production.

6. Future Directions and Challenges in Soil Health Research

The primary challenge in conserving and improving soil health lies in ensuring its long-term productivity and environmental sustainability. CA systems address this challenge by mitigating the negative socio-economic and environmental impacts of soil degradation. These systems enhance soil health while promoting the sustainability and multifunctionality of agroecosystems.

CA is a crucial technical strategy for tackling global issues of food security and environmental preservation. It provides substantial benefits compared to traditional agriculture by enhancing soil health, optimizing natural resource utilization, minimizing the environmental repercussions, conserving inputs, and decreasing production expenses, thereby facilitating sustainable agricultural intensification. The future of sustainable agriculture relies on prioritizing research and education to develop innovative methods that enhance soil health and crop quality. Multiple studies have demonstrated that allocating cash payments for agricultural research is essential to support scientists and researchers in their quest for sustainable solutions [192,241].

Substantial adjustments in agriculture policy are essential for the success of sustainable practices. Current governmental regulations frequently unintentionally encourage detrimental activities that might compromise environmental health and jeopardize food security. New policies must be formulated to improve economic profitability, social justice, and environmental stewardship. Restructuring commodity and price support programs could enable farmers to capitalize on productivity enhancements linked to sustainable practices [242].

Local government activities are essential for enhancing soil health via innovative methods and community involvement. By creating frameworks for green infrastructure and endorsing municipal legislation focused on soil health, communities can cultivate an environment favorable for sustainable agriculture. Cooperative initiatives among local governments, agricultural producers, and educational entities can enhance the implementation of best practices customized to particular regional requirements [243]. Future initiatives should prioritize inclusivity, guaranteeing that marginalized populations obtain resources and assistance in implementing sustainable agriculture techniques. Initiatives designed to educate marginalized groups on sustainable agricultural practices can empower these communities and enhance their involvement in the agricultural sector [244].

The widespread adoption of CA faces several challenges that need to be addressed. These include the unavailability of suitable equipment for small- and medium-scale farms, competition for crop residues used as livestock feed and fuel, and a lack of knowledge about CA’s benefits and implementation techniques. Farmers’ resistance due to traditional practices or prejudices further hinders adoption. Additionally, insufficient technical and financial support from governments and organizations limits the uptake. Technical issues such as inadequate weed management, nutrient stratification, a reduced nitrogen availability, and surface crust formation can lead to decreased yields, discouraging farmers from continuing with CA practices. To enhance the global performance and adoption of CA, it is crucial to adapt CA systems to local agronomic, environmental, social, and economic conditions. Key measures include improving access to machinery and plant nutrition supplies, addressing sociocultural barriers to adoption, and optimizing locally adapted management practices such as crop rotations and strategic tillage. Additionally, increasing institutional support, strengthening research efforts, enhancing extension services, and improving information dissemination are essential to promote CA effectively. Ensuring the long-term productivity and environmental sustainability of agroecosystems requires the development of innovative tools and methodologies for assessing soil quality and health. These tools will play a crucial role in evaluating soil conditions and guiding effective soil management decisions [245].

Through a thorough literature review, we have identified multiple knowledge gaps, which are discussed below.

Inconsistent assessments of analogous qualities across diverse soil types and locales hinder the effectiveness of soil health assessment in identifying disparities in management practices. Precise soil health evaluation necessitates the interpretation of values from an extensive database and their calibration to particular site/soil benchmarks. Nevertheless, most soil health assessment methodologies omit this element, as they do not consider soil diversity, resulting in variable outcomes. This knowledge deficiency could be remedied by establishing a database derived from systematic, repeatable surveys and longitudinal soil health investigations across many soil types.

The absence of correlations between soil health measures and crop production [246] requires additional examination. There exists considerable potential to correlate soil health data with climate, soil, management, pest, and disease variables to forecast plant yields. Identifying a definitive link between soil health enhancements and crop yield increases would promote increased farmer engagement and further the adoption of soil health techniques.

The absence of standardized sample methodologies and protocols in soil evaluation results in a substantial gap in our understanding [247,248]. Additional research is required to establish a uniform methodology for soil sampling and assess the relevance of grid-sampling techniques, such as those employed by Yang et al. [33] to determine the SOC content in different areas in Maryland. Disparities in the sampling depths, replicates, equipment, and methodologies complicate comparisons, while results obtained using antiquated techniques for assessing indicators such as the water-stable aggregates inadequately reflect the overall soil health data.

Clear communication is essential to effectively express the actual and potential advantages of soil health in meeting social demands. In the absence of dependable and credible metrics, public policy and consumer trends may endorse agricultural techniques that do not fulfill objectives such as carbon sequestration, local food production, and nutrient reduction.

In the end, objective soil health indices are crucial for maintaining healthy soils across various soil types worldwide. Farmers require these indicators, coupled with the good communication of intricate systems, to attain agronomic, environmental, and cultural objectives, particularly as scientific comprehension advances. Employing important indices akin to health measures provides a valuable framework. These measures must correspond to concepts such as climate change and stay comprehensible. As scientific understanding progresses and soil health benchmarks shift, it is essential to uphold trust with consumers and governments. Efficient communication and the employment of intermediaries can facilitate the establishment of economic instruments, such as cost-sharing for practice adoption and trade for carbon sequestration or nutrient reductions, to enhance both the environmental and agronomic results.

Future studies should concentrate on formulating agricultural techniques specific to diverse agroecological zones, employing contemporary technologies, and advocating for policies that bolster both local and global agricultural systems. This research should focus on enhancing sustainable methods and developing innovative soil health management strategies to address the interrelated issues of food security and climate change.

7. Conclusions and Practical Solutions for Scaling up Sustainable Practices

Soil is recognized as a substrate for plant growth and a vital resource for ecosystem services and human needs. It underpins food production, supports biodiversity, and plays a role in carbon sequestration, water regulation, and nutrient cycling essential for sustainable agroecosystems. Addressing the current land degradation requires innovative approaches to maintain soil health while sustaining or enhancing agricultural productivity.

This review analyzed the heterogeneity of agricultural methods and their intricate effects on soil health. Ensuring soil’s health necessitates a comprehensive strategy that considers its biological, chemical, and physical characteristics, as well as their interconnections. Implementing soil conservation techniques and advocating for sustainable land use can secure soil health and productivity for future generations. This paper emphasizes the importance of sustainable agriculture methods, including crop rotation, cover cropping, and minimal tillage, in promoting soil health and raising the crop quality. These approaches aim to balance soil conservation with productivity, ensuring soils remain fertile and resilient to support agricultural demands without compromising future productivity.

Humanity’s current task is scaling up sustainable practices in order to guarantee yields and the sustainable use of natural resources. We propose a few strategies to address this challenge:

• Policies and Regulations: Governments can establish frameworks that incentivize sustainable practices, such as carbon taxes, renewable energy subsidies, or strict pollution controls.
• Innovation and Technology: Investing in cutting-edge solutions like clean energy, waste-to-resource technologies, and water conservation systems can make sustainability more feasible and attractive.
• Corporate Responsibility: Organizations can adopt circular economy models, enhance supply chain transparency, and integrate sustainability goals into their main activities.
• Community Involvement: Technical training programs and the mobilization of local communities will ensure support and implementation, making practices more effective on a larger scale.
• Global Collaboration: Partnerships across borders can allow for exchanging knowledge, pooling resources, and fostering innovation.

This research highlights that by incorporating these practices and strategies into contemporary agricultural systems, farmers can tackle the dual issues of food security and the adverse environmental effects of traditional farming methods, thereby fostering a more resilient and sustainable global food system.