Soil Inorganic Carbon as a Potential Sink in Carbon Storage in Dryland Soils—A Review
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Methodological Approach
3. Distribution of Arid Soils and Their Soil Constraints
4. Mechanism of SIC Formation in Dryland Areas
- (a)
- The Per Descendum model: The dissolved carbonate from the upper profile leach down through the soil profile and re-precipitate in the subsoil [41].
- (b)
- The Per Ascendum model: Ca2+ rises from the shallow water table through capillary movement and forms carbonates [42].
- (c)
- The In situ model: The dissolution of carbonates is followed by re-precipitation near the bedrock [42].
- (d)
- The Biogenic model: Secondary carbonates are formed through the activities of soil flora and fauna [32].
- (e)
- Complex mechanisms: All the above-given mechanisms work simultaneously or in a sequential manner based on the prevailing environmental conditions [43].
5. SIC and C Sequestration in Dryland Soils
6. Factors Affecting SIC Formation in Arid Soils
6.1. Climatic Factors
6.2. Land Cover and Land Use
6.3. Farm Management Practices
6.4. Irrigation
6.5. Soil Acidification through Fertilizers
- (a)
- Equations (3) and (4) depict the release of proton ions through nitrification and soil organic matter decomposition, respectively [70].
- (b)
- Equations (5) and (6) depict the consumption of H+ ions during the dissolution of SIC, thus releasing CO2 [94].
- (c)
- Leaching of dissolved inorganic C to groundwater [95].
6.6. Temperature
6.7. Microbial Soil Factors
6.8. Soil Depth
6.9. Parent Material
6.10. SIC in Salt-Affected Soils
7. Relationship between SIC and SOC in Dryland Soils
8. Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (DIC) as a “Missing Sink” in C Sequestration Studies
9. Inorganic C Fluxes in Dry Land Systems: Their Role in Gaseous Ecosystem C Flux
- (a)
- In the Chihuahuan Desert, soil CO2 profiles and fluxes, as well as volumetric soil moisture and temperature, were recorded by Hammerlynck et al. [135] throughout a three-month hot and dry period in both bare interplant canopy soils and under plant canopies. The results indicated that elevated CO2 might directly affect abiotic C dynamics in the dry season. Even if temperature and precipitation have no effect on the dynamics of soil CO2 and temperature, increasing atmospheric CO2 will speed up nocturnal carbonate dissolution. This could result in more carbonate dissolution and soil uptake beneath the canopy. Increasing levels of CO2 could alter the spatial and temporal patterns of PIC development during warm, dry seasons.
- (b)
- To explore how climate influences the CO2 fluxes and C balances in soil by interacting with biotic drivers, Ball et al. [136] measured soil CO2 flux in experimental field manipulations, microcosm incubations, and across natural environmental gradients of soil moisture and found that CO2 flux in dry valley soils is driven primarily by physical factors such as soil temperature and moisture, suggesting that future climate change may alter the dry valley soil C cycle. This shows the potential for arid polar soils to absorb CO2, mostly driven by abiotic factors related to climate change.
- (c)
- Soils rich in carbonaceous parent material are associated with CO2 exchange patterns that cannot be explained by biological processes, such as asymmetric daytime outgassing or nighttime CO2 uptake during times when all vegetation is senescent. Carbonate weathering reactions cannot account for either of these events because the rates of CO2 exchange are too low. By imposing ventilation-driven CO2 outgassing in a carbonate weathering model, Roland et al. [137] showed that carbonate geochemistry is accelerated and plays a substantial role in a semi-arid ecosystem’s CO2 exchange pattern. Ventilation depletes soil CO2 during the day, disrupting carbonate equilibria and accelerating carbonate precipitation and CO2 generation. At night, ventilation stops, and CO2 levels rise steadily. Increased carbonate dissolution consumes CO2 and compensates for increased daytime precipitation. This is why only a minimal effect on worldwide carbonate weathering rates is expected.
- (d)
- Pedogenic carbonate formation occurs when the soil is warm and extremely dry, not during the mean growing season, as is commonly believed [138].
- (e)
- Roby et al. [139] investigated the ways in which soil temperature, soil moisture, and gross ecosystem photosynthesis control soil CO2 flux in semi-arid ecosystems. Including soil moisture and gross ecosystem photosynthesis in the models of soil CO2 flux can help reduce the amount of uncertainty in semi-arid ecosystem C dynamics.
- (f)
- A large carbonate pool exists in arid soils, which may contribute to surface-atmosphere CO2 exchange via a diurnal cycle of carbonate dissolution and exsolution. Abiotic processes have a significant role in the C cycle of desert soils. Soper et al. [140] demonstrate that diurnally evolving CO2 occurs in part from carbonate sources, providing a source to balance the nocturnal CO2 uptake found in arid areas and likely maintaining the system at (or close to) C equilibrium.
- (g)
- Kowalski et al. [141] tested the idea that surface-atmosphere CO2 exchanges in terrestrial ecosystems can always be explained by biological processes alone, without considering geochemical cycling by karst systems. Further, large daytime CO2 emissions during prolonged drought and plant senescence contradict ecophysiological explanations. CO2 emissions in the afternoon during the summer in a temperate pasture above an accessible cave are hard to explain biologically, but they occur at the same time as cave ventilation. These studies reveal that CO2 exchanges between the atmosphere, ecosystems, and carbonate substrates are occasionally related directly.
- (h)
- Based on isotope analysis, the SIC pool adds significantly to soil CO2 and, in turn, to the average CO2 outflow [142]. This contribution was season and location sensitive. During daily cycles, the inorganic source contributed significantly to soil CO2, with the largest levels occurring during the day in tandem with the maximum respiration rates.
10. Conclusions
Supplementary Materials
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Naorem, A.; Jayaraman, S.; Dalal, R.C.; Patra, A.; Rao, C.S.; Lal, R. Soil Inorganic Carbon as a Potential Sink in Carbon Storage in Dryland Soils—A Review. Agriculture 2022, 12, 1256. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12081256
Naorem A, Jayaraman S, Dalal RC, Patra A, Rao CS, Lal R. Soil Inorganic Carbon as a Potential Sink in Carbon Storage in Dryland Soils—A Review. Agriculture. 2022; 12(8):1256. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12081256
Chicago/Turabian StyleNaorem, Anandkumar, Somasundaram Jayaraman, Ram C. Dalal, Ashok Patra, Cherukumalli Srinivasa Rao, and Rattan Lal. 2022. "Soil Inorganic Carbon as a Potential Sink in Carbon Storage in Dryland Soils—A Review" Agriculture 12, no. 8: 1256. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12081256