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Review

Applications of Nanotechnology-Based Agrochemicals in Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture: An Overview

by
Fahad Khan
1,
Pratibha Pandey
1,* and
Tarun Kumar Upadhyay
2
1
Department of Biotechnology, Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology, 19, Knowledge Park-II, Institutional Area, Greater Noida 201306, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Department of Biotechnology, Parul Institute of Applied Sciences and Centre of Research for Development, Parul University, Vadodara 391760, Gujarat, India
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Agriculture 2022, 12(10), 1672; https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101672
Submission received: 26 August 2022 / Revised: 19 September 2022 / Accepted: 11 October 2022 / Published: 12 October 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Agricultural Product Quality and Safety)
Browse Figure
Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Sustainable agriculture is crucial for stimulating both developing and developed countries. Agriculture needs modernization and innovation to meet the increasing demands of food for the growing global population and to maintain environmental sustainability simultaneously. Nanotechnology has gained wider attention in food safety improvement and environment protection by augmenting the efficacy of agricultural inputs and giving potent solutions to agricultural issues for improving food security and productivity. Modern agricultural practices have been found to be associated with the degradation of the environment, ecosystems, and land due to agricultural pollution. Our review provides a detailed insight into the recent developments in nanotechnology-based agrochemicals which have transformed the agriculture sector with better plant growth, crop yields, nano-facilitated soil remediation, and identifying environmental contaminants. The incorporation of nanoscale bioagrochemicals such as nano-pesticides, nano-fertilizers, nanoformulations, and nanosensors in agriculture has revolutionized the traditional agro-practices making them more sustainable, ingenious, and environmentally efficient. Furthermore, we also list recently explored nanotechnology-based agrochemicals including nanocomposites that have significantly overcome the crucial issues associated with food packaging and agricultural sustainability. However, further research is still warranted to study their migration in food products and their environmental implications. Altogether, this review will be highly beneficial for future researchers to understand and exploit the potential of nanomaterials for better food security and sustainable agriculture.

1. Introduction

The agriculture sector has always remained the most stable and potential sector for being the major source of materials to food industries for sustainable growth and development. Due to the growing population and limited natural resources, there is an urgent demand for efficient, feasible, and eco-friendly agricultural expansion. However, the agriculture sector has numerous challenges including a reduction in crop yield, climatic change, depletion of soil nutrients, water scarcity, reduced soil fertility, crop diseases, and inadequate manpower [1,2,3]. Scientists are struggling to elucidate other potential technologies for narrowing the current food demand by enhancing the supply chain. Nanotechnology has emerged as one of several promising technologies which can further ameliorate agricultural productivity by utilizing efficient pesticides, herbicides, and nano-fertilizers, regulating soil nutrition, and wastewater remediation [4,5,6]. It has shown remarkable advancements in several domains such as industrial food processing with better food productivity and nutritive enhancement along with strong antimicrobial competency. Agricultural advancements mainly rely on climatic changes, ecosystem processes, social inclusion, and natural resources [7]. Therefore, there is an imperative necessity to continue advancements in the agriculture domain for combating serious issues such as poverty and hunger. The United Nations (UN) has also emphasized sustainable agriculture and incorporated it as one of its sustainable development goals [8]. Agricultural sustainability has always been a central concern due to its longstanding consequences for national economics and food production [9]. Sustainability in agricultural practices comprises efficient usage of soil nutrients, water resources, proper handling of agro wastes, minimal use of fertilizers, plant disease control, and advanced farming techniques [10]. It can only be assessed based on certain parameters such as technological innovations, fund availability to farmers, and involvement in research and development for developing advanced techniques. Nanotechnology offers a wider potential in achieving sustainable agriculture sectors by enhancing the efficacy of agricultural inputs, thereby increasing food production and improving crop yield. This would simultaneously lead to environmental sustainability, ecological balance preservation, and economic stability [11,12].
Nanotechnology has been showing tremendous potential in finding solutions to food security-related issues by boosting food availability and providing better products that are highly beneficial in agriculture, water, environment, drug development, and health [13]. Few of the emerging domains of nanotechnology might be highly beneficial in solving several food problems such as nutrient delivery, protein bioseparation, faster sampling of chemical and biological contaminants, solubilization, and nutraceutical nanoencapsulation. Food nanotechnology constitutes the utilization of nanocarrier processes and technologies for strengthening the bioactive ingredients so as to further modify their biological availability and form an obstacle against several environmental or chemical alterations [14].
Nanotechnology has shown numerous advantages. However, it has not gained wider acceptance due to several factors such as the complexity of nanomaterials (metallic nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, nanowires, nano-composites) and complex legislative procedures, and their limited regulations due to limited research reports on toxicity and risk associated with these nanomaterials [15,16,17]. Hence, it becomes imperative to conduct research for investigating the toxicity, bioaccumulation, degradation, and assimilation of nanomaterials in the human body along with their impact on the ecosystem. Nanomaterials have wider applications in several aspects of the food industry including food processing, production, transportation, and storage [18,19,20].
Little has been reported on the side effects of accepting these nanomaterials that could elicit some impact on fauna, flora, and ecosystem. However, such cases can be overcome by elucidating effective disposal methods by future researchers, government agencies, and food companies. Numerous practices have been employed to bring sustainability to agriculture such as nanotechnology, biotechnology, and genome editing technologies [21]. Amongst them, nanotechnology is gaining global recognition in the domain of drug development, medicine, and food security for the betterment of mankind.
The size, shape, and structural features of the nanoparticles differ. Its shape and dimensions range from 1 nm to 100 nm, and it can be spherical, cylindrical, tubular, conical, hollow-cored, flat, etc., or irregular. There could be asymmetry or homogeneous surface differences. Some nanoparticles have one or more clusters of crystals or loosely distributed crystals and are either crystalline or amorphous. Numerous synthesis procedures are either being developed or have been developed in order to increase the quality and reduce manufacturing costs. To enhance their optical, mechanical, physical, and chemical capabilities, particular nanoparticles are subjected to various processing techniques. An important instrumentation advancement has resulted in improved nanoparticle characterization and subsequent use. The three main categories of nanoparticles are carbon-based, inorganic, and organic [22]. Common names for organic nanoparticles or polymers include dendrimers, micelles, liposomes, and ferritin. These nanoparticles are non-toxic and biodegradable, and some, such as micelles and liposomes, include hollow centers known as nano-capsules that are sensitive to electromagnetic radiation such as heat and light. They are the perfect option for drug administration because of their distinctive qualities. Non-carbon-based nanoparticles are referred to as inorganic nanoparticles. Inorganic nanoparticles are typically defined as those made of metal or metal oxide. Metal-based nanoparticles are produced by either destructive or constructive means from metals down to nanometric sizes. The most often employed metals for the manufacture of nanoparticles are aluminum (Al), cadmium (Cd), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), gold (Au), iron (Fe), lead (Pb), silver (Ag), and zinc (Zn). The properties of the corresponding metal-based nanoparticles are modified by the creation of metal oxide-based nanoparticles. For instance, iron nanoparticles (Fe) rapidly oxidize to iron oxide (Fe2O3) at ambient temperature, increasing their reactivity in comparison to iron nanoparticles. Due to their improved efficiency and reactivity, metal oxide nanoparticles, such as aluminum oxide, are produced (Al2O3). Carbon-based nanoparticles are those made entirely of carbon. They can be divided into fullerenes, graphene, carbon nanotubes (CNTs), carbon nanofibers, carbon black, and occasionally nanoscale activated carbon. Nanomaterial synthesized via biological ways such as plant extract emerged as an innovative method aimed at reducing waste generation and maintaining ecosystem sustainability [23,24]. Plant extracts (biological synthesis) have been reported as a better economical alternative to chemical and physical methods used for the synthesis of nanomaterials since plant extracts only consist of secondary metabolites that are highly reducing and stabilizing agents [25].
Nanotechnology has emerged as a potential tool in combination with clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR)-mediated gene editing methods for increasing food productivity in the field of agriculture in a cost-effective and economical manner [26]. For instance, silver and titanium nanoparticles are mainly utilized in the storage and packaging of food products [27]. Zinc oxide nanoparticles are also used for the improvement of food nutritional quality [28]. Moreover, gold and platinum nanowire-based biosensors are used in food analysis [29]. Recently, nanobiotechnology has been mainly emphasizing developing novel biosensors as immobilization platforms, catalytic tools, or optical labels for improving their performance in terms of higher sensitivity, selectivity, and stability in food industries. Furthermore, these nano-based biosensors have been showing enormous potential in bringing advancements for developing novel food detection approaches. Hence, we summarized this review study to make future researchers understand and exploit the potential of nanomaterials for better food security and sustainable agriculture.

2. Nanoparticles as a Growth-Stimulating Element of Sustainable Agriculture

Sustainable agriculture should be the prime focus of today’s research for fulfilling the unmet demands of the growing human population of developing countries. A few nanoparticles have displayed several unique physicochemical potentials that greatly helped in augmenting stress tolerance and plant growth [30]. Nano-agriculture utilizes biosynthesized nanoparticles and imparts numerous benefits to plants by decreasing the impact of environmental biotic and abiotic stresses. These stresses impart negative effects on plants by dysregulating their internal homeostasis and thereby altering their yield potential. Biosynthesis of nanoparticles exhibits peculiar effects in plants including antioxidant status improvement and reduction in generated ROS which in turn further regulates numerous molecular and biochemical cell signaling pathways, ensuring better yield and growth potential [31]. The biological abilities of nanoparticles have been mainly dependent on the type of method applied, concentration selection, and physiochemical properties. Thus, we try to summarize the efficacies of numerous nanoparticle types on several plant abiotic stresses (such as heat, drought, and heavy metals), plant growth, and several other biotic stresses (pathogens) in this section. Nanoparticles have been reported to stimulate plant growth by imparting positive effects on root growth, seed germination, shoot growth, and biomass yield which would definitely motivate future researchers and agencies to utilize suitable nanoparticles for agricultural sustainability and advancements [32]. Agriculture may face environmental challenges in the future, jeopardizing food security for the world’s fast-rising population. We could study one of the possibilities for enhancing plant performance, biomass, plant productivity, and eventually grain output by modifying present fertilization processes. Excessive use of chemical fertilizers has the potential to impair human health, animal health, plant/crop health, and the environment. Nanofertilizers (NFs) could be a potential and fruitful answer to these problems. The usage of NFs has been discovered to be one of the most successful strategies for enhancing resource efficiency, plant production, and pollution reduction. As a result, NFs may be used instead of traditional fertilizers to improve agricultural goods [33].
In plants, photosynthesis is a crucial metabolic activity and remains vulnerable to numerous stresses such as nutritional deprivation, drought, salinity, and heat [12]. Silicon dioxide (SiO2) nanoparticles have been utilized in pumpkin plants to establish their defense responses to abiotic stress by improving transpiration (water-use efficiency), carbonic anhydrase activities, and photosynthetic pigments. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has altered photoreduction potential and blocked linolenic acid in the electron transport chain (ETC) located in chloroplasts for oxygen evolution. During abiotic stress, plant cell organelles produce reactive oxygen species as their primary symptom. Normally, plants have well-constructed enzymatic machinery for dealing with this environment-induced oxidative stress. However, during abiotic stress conditions, plants suffer from the adverse side effects of these situations when the plant defense system fails [34]. Nanomaterials alleviate this stress by collecting osmolytes, activating specific genes, and supplying free amino acids and nutrients. Negatively charged plant cell walls promote cationic penetration instead of anionic nanoparticles. Therefore, negatively charged nanoparticles have higher transportation efficiency, with better translocation and internalization. For instance, cerium oxide (CeO) nanoparticles (positively charged) get adsorbed onto negatively charged root surfaces while negatively charged CeO2 nanoparticles display restricted root accumulation but enhanced shoot internalization via overcoming the electrostatic resistance. Nano-fertilizer utilization has resulted in increased biochemical and physiological indices of crop plants. In sunflower plants, magnetic nano-fluid displayed a positive effect on total chlorophyll content. In Zea mays, foliar spray of TiO2 nanoparticles increased photosynthetic pigments with better crop yield. Plants produce antioxidants (secondary metabolites) during adverse situations such as nutritional deficiency, salt, and drought. Nano-fertilizers such as nTiO2 provide sufficient nutrients for improved antioxidant regulation in plant cells via enhanced photosynthetic responses and enhanced photo assimilation potential of leaves and grain yield. In more than 95 percent of plants, the application of nTiO2 increased fresh and dry mass by improving photosynthetic capacity and nitrogen metabolism by improving pigment formation and conversion of light energy into biochemical energy via improved photophosphorylation, which also upregulated biological carbon sequestration through the Calvin cycle [35].

3. Nanotechnology and Food Insecurities

The application of nanomaterials in agriculture could provide a potent way to overcome prevalent food security issues and menaces. Nanotechnological advancements have been globally accepted in agriculture farming due to their easier distribution in a controlled manner with precise specificity and minimal collateral damage. Nanotechnology has infiltrated numerous aspects of consumer food products including food preservation, food packaging, and additives. This has revolutionized the field of food storage and packaging to ensure food hygiene and safety. There are several reports related to the addition of numerous chemicals as food additives or their utilization in food packaging at a nanometer scale. The European Commission (EC) and the United State Food and Drug Administration (US FDA) are the two major sources of regulation and legislation on food nanotechnology. The US FDA has permitted the usage of inorganic oxide chemicals including MgO (E530), SiO2 (E551), and TiO2 (E171) as anti-caking agent, flavor carrier, and color additives in foods including white sauces, candies, and puddings. The US FDA has also categorized zinc oxide, copper oxide, and iron oxide as safe nutritional dietary supplements for animal feed [36,37].
Increasing population, climatic changes, and industrialization have increased food insecurities globally. Approximately two billion people globally experience severe or moderated food insecurity due to limited access to regular food [38]. The strategies to increase crop yield, postharvest depletion, and agricultural sustainability are therefore the subject of extensive research on a global scale. The agriculture sector has significantly improved as a result of recent advances in nanotechnology, further ensuring the wellbeing and health of people everywhere. By increasing the effectiveness of agricultural inputs and offering workable solutions related to agricultural practices, these advances have been implemented [39]. Nanotechnology-based agricultural products including nano-pesticides, nano-fertilizer, and nanosensors have revolutionized traditional agricultural practices and transformed them into more advanced and efficient agricultural practices. Other potential applications of nanotechnology in agriculture include wastewater remediation, reduction of soil pollutants, and enhancement of crop productivity via pathogen detection by biosensors (Figure 1). For instance, various rice cultivars responded better when exposed to biosynthesized nanoparticles during their different growth stages [40].

4. Nano-Advancements in Food Processing and Packaging

Recently, food industries have been discerning numerous ways to enhance the safety, quality, and nutritive value of food items and therefore, there is an urgent need to identify better-advanced technologies to enhance the market price, productivity, and quality of food products.
Nanotechnology has gained wider applications in food production and food processing by incorporating nanoencapsulation, nano-based food additives, nanosensors, nanoparticle-based packing and distribution systems, and healthcare [41]. Nanomaterials have been utilized in food processing in several ways such as anticaking agents, food additives, antimicrobial agents, and filling agents to enhance the stability and mechanical power of packing material. Further, it also helps in enhancing the bioavailability and stability of food supplements used in nutraceuticals production [42]. Nanotechnologies are gaining wider recognition in the food science domain for their utilization in modified food packaging, food formulation, and novel ingredient production for delivering high-quality and healthier food systems with better shelf life. Nanofiltration has been widely employed in pharmaceutical industries for solute purification and improving the product quality of drinking water and dairy products [43]. Nanofabrication via mass and heat transfer has improved the heat resistance of food packages. Nanoscale enzyme reactors have been used in food treatment methods for bringing variations in methods used to add dietary values and flavor to processed food. This further helps in improving the enzymatic activities, thereby enhancing the shelf life of food. The nanoencapsulation technique has also been applied for the improvement of food quality (such as flavor) and their preservation; protocol is applied to improve food products. Nano-capsules (nanoceramic pot) are also employed for altering absorption to reduce the time needed for cooking, reduction in trans fatty acids (due to the usage of plant oil over hydrogenated oil), and formation of safer nanocapsules which ultimately results in increased absorption of nutrients from processed food. Nanoencapsulation not only prevents odors but also accomplishes food interactions with active ingredients to prevent the expulsion of active agents, thereby shielding the food products from chemical, moisture, or biological damage during packaging and storing [44]. Metallic oxides have also been utilized as a coloring agent in food products. For instance, SiO2 nanomaterials are used for the transportation of aromas in food materials [45]. Table 1 summarizes best potent biosynthesized nanomaterials used in food processing and packaging in recent years.
Packaging plays a vital role in food industries as it protects the food from any form of spoilage and damage. Hence, it is imperative to elucidate better packaging techniques that must be passive, safer, inexpensive, reusable, and easily disposable or reusable during transportation and storage conditions. Packaging material (their composition) greatly affects the food quality. An active packaging strategy has been widely used to enhance food shelf life. Antimicrobial agents combined with packaging film are used for the protection from microbial degeneration during transportation and storage in food protection systems [78]. Broadly, two types of nanocomposite films (plant protein-based) can be used for antimicrobial packaging including nanocomposite plant protein-based film having a nanostructured material (such as ZnO, Ag, or TiO2 nanoparticles) with inherent antimicrobial potential and plant protein-based film with strong antimicrobial agents (organic acids, essential oils) and nanomaterial (nano-clay) as reinforcing agents. Plant protein (biodegradable)-based food packaging materials have gained more attention than any other materials utilized in bio-packaging due to their formability, nutritional attributes, availability, low cost, adhesives/cohesive parameters, and biodegradability. However, these packaging materials have a few limitations that can be overcome with the utilization of nano-sized materials resulting in modified raw materials with similar properties to existing plastic packaging materials. Nanomaterials-based modified plant protein biofilm promotes their optical, antimicrobial, and mechanical properties, making them multifunctional ingredients for food products. Research has projected their focus on the application of nanomaterials-based biopolymer modifications in biodegradable films for gaining improvements in their physicochemical and mechanical properties used in food packaging. Several methods including solvent casting, compression molding, electro spinning, and dry extrusion methods have been widely used in film preparation for food packaging. The composite film formation method is mainly dependent on the biopolymer molecular structure for the improvement in their thermal, barriers, and mechanical properties [79]. Nanostructured materials have been used in food packaging due to their improved mechanical strength, thermal stability, and biodegradability. Nanoscale metal oxides have significantly improved the structural and functional properties of composites used in food processing, packaging, and preservation. Nanomaterials might improve the packaging stuff qualities such as being lighter in weight and increased resistance to heat resistance [80]. Bio-nanocomposite coatings have shown significant delay in spoilage/ripening, minimized gas diffusion, improved antimicrobial potential of coatings, texture improvement, product appearance, and shelf-life extension via formation of semi-permeable barriers against moisture and gasses.
Numerous metals and their oxides nanoparticles have been majorly exploited as antimicrobials for food packaging applications such as TiO2 and Ag nanoparticles. TiO2 has mainly been used as a catalytic substrate or adsorbent material because of its semiconducting qualities with enhanced photosensitive, electrical, and optical outcomes. Major advantages of using nanoparticles in food packaging include better sensing quality, antimicrobial potential, oxygen transport, and enzyme mobilization. Quality and safety of meat/seafood products are highly dependent on the type of used packaging technology and materials. Thus, elucidating a potent antioxidant and antibacterial nanocomposite packaging bio film could be a promising strategy for delaying fatty acid oxidation and microbial spoilage in meat [81]. Another study conducted by Echeverría et al. (2018) further developed a nanocomposite film (based on soy protein isolate) incorporated with clove essential oil and montmorillonite for covering muscle fillets (of bluefin tuna). Results showed that addition of essential oils and montmorillonite to soy protein film resulted in reduced microbial count and lipid oxidation [82]. Polylactides-chitosan manufacturing has shown promising antioxidant and packaging potential over chitosan. Chitosan nanoparticles were synthesized by electrostatic interaction between chitosan amino sides and polyanions as cross-linkers [83]. Chitosan (gelatin-based) nanocomposite with Ag nanoparticles has also been utilized for food packaging of red grapes. Nanoparticles also possess several other unique potentials including optoelectronic, catalytic, and physiochemical which directly encourage plant growth, and increase photosynthesis and plant resistance to various abiotic and biotic stresses. For instance, CeO2 nanoscale particles have strong antioxidant-enzyme-mimicking potential and thus are strong ROS scavengers with their numerous surface oxygen spaces which helps in reducing abiotic and biotic stresses in plants and their better survival [84]. Taken together, these nanoparticles including silver, nanochitosan, nanozeolite, nanogypsum, TiO2, copper, iron oxide, and zinc oxide can greatly provide a significant solution to food security challenges and would be highly beneficial for plant growth and crop yield that would further helps in attaining agricultural sustainability. A better shelf life of packaged food product would also reduce loss in the supply chain, thereby helping reduce food poverty.

5. Conclusions

Enormous dependencies on agrochemicals have majorly degraded overall crop yield which has led to irreparable loss to our ecosystem. The growing population demands increased food productivity which ultimately needs better food quality control. Hence, nanobiotechnology has offered a potential solution to this critical issue that has not only enhanced growth yield but has also increased plant survival rate. Nanomaterials have been recognized as a safe delivery system and display various unique potentials hence nano-fertilizers, nanosensors, and nano pesticides find potent applications in the agricultural domain that could further contribute to sustainability. However, there is a continual need to put enormous efforts to elucidate the environmental and economic feasibility of nanomaterials for wider usage. Nanotechnology also plays a pivotal role in food stability, processing, modification, sensing, and minimizing food losses with better packaging material. Commonly used nanoparticles (such as Zn, Ag, TiO2, Au, ZnO, MgO, and SiO2) induce several health risks due to their easier cellular penetration in humans and animals. Such health risks can only be minimized by exploiting greener approaches utilizing plant extracts for nanoparticle synthesis for better yield and long-term sustainability in agriculture and the ecosystem.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, F.K., P.P. and T.K.U.; writing—original draft preparation, F.K., P.P. and T.K.U.; writing—review and editing, F.K., P.P. and T.K.U.; visualization, F.K., P.P. and T.K.U.; supervision, F.K., P.P. and T.K.U.; project administration, F.K. and P.P. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Acknowledgments

Authors are thankful to Noida Institute of Engineering and Technology for its support.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Agriculture 12 01672 g001 550
Figure 1. Application of nanomaterials in ecosystem and agricultural sustainability.
Figure 1. Application of nanomaterials in ecosystem and agricultural sustainability.
Agriculture 12 01672 g001
Table
Table 1. Potential biosynthesized nanomaterials in food packaging and processing.
Table 1. Potential biosynthesized nanomaterials in food packaging and processing.
Nanomaterials Synthesized in Biological SystemCharacterizationMode of ActionReference
Manganese oxide nanoparticles (Allium cepa bulb extract)X-ray diffraction analysis (XRD), photoelectron spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy (TEM)Enhanced watermelon crop productivity[46]
Zinc nanoparticles (M. arvensis leaves extract)Ultraviolet-visible (UV–Vis) spectroscopy, energy dispersive X-ray (EDX), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), TEM, and XRDIncreased antioxidant enzymes such as superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, and catalase.
Enhanced secondary metabolites in medicinal plants and enriched nutritional quality of oil crops.		[47]
Cu/CUO based nanomaterials (Adhatoda vasica leaf extract)XRD, UV–Vis spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), FESEM, XPS, Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, and EDXStrong antifungal and antibacterial agent[48]
Silver Nanoparticles (Bacteria: Serratia sp.)XRD, TEM,
EDXA, FTIR		Reduction and stabilization: Potent fungicide against phytopathogen Bipolaris sorokiniana causing spot blotch disease in wheat.[49]
Silver and zinc oxide nanoparticles (Pichia fermentans JA2)UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, and FE-SEM
-EDX analysis		Synergistic efficacy with antibiotics: Zinc nanoparticles inhibited only Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Silver nanoparticles inhibited most of the gram-negative clinical pathogens.[50]
Silver and zinc nanoparticles
(Garcinia livingstonei leaf extract)		FTIR, XRD, AFM, and HR-TEMInhibitory effects on cell division in root tip cells with reduction in their mitotic index (MI)[51]
Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (Bacteria: Bacillus cereus strain HMH1)FTIR, FE-SEM, DLS, EDS, vibrating-sample magnetometer (VSM), and UV–Vis spectroscopyEffective stabilizing and capping agent with low cytotoxicity[52]
Gold nanoparticles (Yeast: Magnusiomyces ingens LH-F1)TEM, Dynamic light scattering (DLS), UV–Vis spectroscopy, SEM, FTIR, and SDS-PAGEEffective stabilizing, reducing, and capping agent. Performs catalytic reduction of nitrophenols[53]
Silver and Silver chloride nanoparticles (Yeast: Candida lusitaniae)TEM, SEM-EDS UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, and FIB/SEMPotent antimicrobial potential[54]
Silver nanoparticles (Yeast: Rhodotorula glutinis and Cryptococcus laurentii)FTIR, UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, and TEMSignificant antifungal potential against several phytopathogenic fungi[55]
Silver nanoparticles (Fungi: Saccharomyces cerevisiae)FTIR, UV–Vis spectroscopy, TEM, and XRDStrong capping and reducing agents with photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue[56]
Silver nanoparticles (Fungi: Aspergillus flavus and Emericella nidulans)DLS, XRD, EDX, TEM, and FTIRStrong capping and reducing agents with synergistic antibiofilm and antibacterial activity[57]
TiO2 nanoparticles (Fungi: Aspergillus flavus TFR 7)TEM, DLS, and EDXPlant growth stimulator: shoot length, root area, root length and root nodule and promoted rhizospheric microbes[58]
TiO2 nanoparticles (Enzyme: Alpha amylase)TEM, XRD, and FTIRStrong capping and reducing agents with highly effective against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus[59]
CuO nanoparticles
(Actinomysetes: isolate VITBN4)		DLS, FTIR, UV–Vis spectroscopy, TEM, SEM, EDX, and XRDStrong antibacterial potential against fish and human bacterial pathogens[60]
Gold and silver nanoparticles
(Actinomysetes: Streptomyces)		FTIR, UV–Vis spectroscopy, AFM, and TEMStrong capping agent with effective antibacterial efficacy[61]
CuO nanoparticles (marine algae: brown alga Cystoseira
Trinodis)		Raman, XRD, AFM, FE-SEM, EDX, and TEMEffective stabilizing, catalytic, and reducing agent.[62]
Copper oxide nanoparticles (aqueous extract of brown algae Macrocystis pyrifera)DLS, Z-potential, FTIR, TEM with EDS detector,
low molecular weight protein fractions,
high molecular weight protein fractions		Effective stabilizing, catalytic, and reducing agent.[63]
Gold and silver nanoparticles
(Red ginseng root extract)		TEM, EDX, and UV–Vis spectroscopy Effective stabilizing, catalytic, and reducing agent and antimicrobial activity[64]
Silver nanoparticles (Cassia tora leaf extract)EDAX, SEM, XRD, and FTIRReducing agent with significant antioxidant and antibacterial potential[65]
Silver nanoparticles (Atrocarpus altilis leaf extract)FTIR, SEM, DLS, EDX TEM, and XRDCapping agent with significant antioxidant and antibacterial potential[66]
Silver nanoparticles (Pineapples and oranges
Fruits extract)		SEM and UV–Vis spectroscopyReducing agent[67]
Xylanase-silver nanoparticles
(Juices from Mangifera indica, Punica granatum, and Ananas comosus)		UV–Vis spectroscopy, FTIRJuices clarification in food processing industries, reducing sugars production[68]
Silver nanoparticles (Butea monosperma bark extract)EDX, DLS, TEM, XRD, and FTIRStrong reducing, capping, and antibacterial potential and potent cytotoxic efficacies against human myeloid leukemia and antibacterial activity[69]
Silver nanoparticles (Coffea arabica seed extract)TEM, DLS, UV–Vis spectroscopy, SEM-EDXA, XRD, and FTIRStrong antimicrobial potential against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli[70]
Silver nanoparticles synthesis
(coffee residues extract)		UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, and SEMSignificant antibacterial efficacy against two bacteria Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa[71]
Nanoscale zero-valent iron (Aloe vera plant extract)EDS, TGA, FE-SEM, XRD, and FT-IRStrong reducing agent and effective in removing arsenic and selenium from water[72]
Silver nanoparticles (Nigella sativa leaf extract)SEM, UV–Vis spectroscopy, FTIR,Strong reducing and capping agent with lower cytotoxicity and phytotoxicity[73]
Silver nanoparticles (Nigella sativa seed extract)TEM, SEM, Zeta potential, UV–Vis spectroscopy, DLS and XRDStrong photo catalytic activity on degradation of Congo red dye with high energy and smaller size[74]
Gold and Silver nanoparticles
(Butea monosperma leaf extract)		DLS, UV–Vis spectroscopy, XRD, TEM,
XPS, FTIR		Strong reducing and capping agent with significant inhibitory potential against various cell lines.[75]
Silver nanoparticles (Longan fruit extract)XRD, UV–Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, TEM, and
EDX,		Strong reducing and capping agent and highly effective against Staphylococcus[76]
Silver nanoparticles (Butea monosperma bark extract)SPR, FTIR, XRD, HR-TEMPotent antibacterial activity against both gram positive and gram-negative human bacteria[77]
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Khan, F.; Pandey, P.; Upadhyay, T.K. Applications of Nanotechnology-Based Agrochemicals in Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture: An Overview. Agriculture 2022, 12, 1672. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101672

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Khan F, Pandey P, Upadhyay TK. Applications of Nanotechnology-Based Agrochemicals in Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture: An Overview. Agriculture. 2022; 12(10):1672. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101672

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Khan, Fahad, Pratibha Pandey, and Tarun Kumar Upadhyay. 2022. "Applications of Nanotechnology-Based Agrochemicals in Food Security and Sustainable Agriculture: An Overview" Agriculture 12, no. 10: 1672. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture12101672

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