Assessing the Influence of Soil Quality on Rainfed Wheat Yield
Abstract
:1. Introduction
- i-
- to evaluate the quality of soils based on the two weighting methods: multi linear regression and factor analysis;
- ii-
- to establish a minimum data set for assessing soil quality for rainfed winter wheat;
- iii-
- to evaluate the impacts of soil type on soil quality and rainfed winter wheat yield;
- iv-
- to assess soil quality in rainfed winter wheat systems based on rainfed winter wheat yields.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Description of the Study Area
- i-
- Selection of 100 soil samples based on two soil orders (Entisols and Inceptisols);
- ii-
- Measuring 18 soil physical, chemical, and biological characteristics as a total data set. Actual yield of rainfed winter wheat was also measured at 100 sampling points using a 1 m2 quadrat;
- iii-
- Removing the soil indicators that did not demonstrate a consistent correlation with rainfed winter wheat yields from the total data set;
- iv-
- Determining the minimum data set (MDS) using principal component analysis (PCA);
- v-
- Scoring of each soil indicator in the MDS in the range of 0–1 using two standard scoring functions (SSF) including “More is better” (MO) and “Less is better” (LE) to standardize soil indicators measured on different scales;
- vi-
- Weighting each soil indicator in the MDS using two weighting approaches including multi linear regression (MLR) and factor analysis (FA);
- vii-
- Calculating the two weighted additive soil quality indices (SQIw): SQIw-F (FA method) and SQIw-M (MLR method);
- viii-
- Validating each SQI (SQIw-F and SQIw-M) using the establishment of correlations between them and the actual yields of rainfed winter wheat;
- ix-
- Grading each SQI (SQIw-F and SQIw-M) into five grades (very high, high, moderate, low, and very low);
- x-
- Mapping each SQI (SQIw-F and SQIw-M) using digital soil mapping (DSM) approaches.
2.2. Sampling and Soil Analysis
2.3. Measurement of Actual Yield
2.4. Assessment of Soil Quality Index (SQI)
2.4.1. Determining the Minimum Data Set (MDS)
2.4.2. Indicator Scoring of Soil Quality Indicators
2.4.3. Weighting of Soil Quality Indicators
2.4.4. Calculating of Soil Quality Index
2.4.5. Validation of the Soil Quality Index
2.4.6. Grading and Mapping of Soil Quality Index
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Soil Indicators Variability and Rainfed Wheat Yield
3.2. The Minimum Data Set (MDS)
3.3. Weighting
3.4. SQI and Weighting Methods
3.5. SQI According to Soil Orders
3.6. Validation of SQI
3.6.1. Different Weighting Methods
3.6.2. Different Soil Orders
4. Discussion
4.1. The Minimum Data Set (MDS)
4.2. Evaluation of Approaches to Weighting SQIs
4.3. Soil Quality Indicators and Suggestions for Soil Quality Management
4.4. Links between Soil Orders and SQIs
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Soil Property | L | U | FT a | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
Clay | 10.74 | 37.52 | MO | [27,28] |
Sand | 35.20 | 75.68 | LE | [28] |
CEC | 6.25 | 29.00 | MO | [22,57] |
AP | 6.50 | 21.40 | MO | [5,25] |
AK | 71.50 | 187.50 | MO | [6,24] |
SMR | 75.7 | 205.00 | MO | [54,56] |
Unit | Number | Mean | Minimum | Maximum | Standard Deviation | Coefficient of Variation | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | 100 | 8.09 | 7.60 | 8.92 | 0.31 | 3.84 | |
Sand | % | 100 | 48.6 | 35.2 | 75.6 | 7.48 | 15.38 |
Silt | % | 100 | 28.1 | 6.4 | 40.8 | 6.01 | 21.34 |
Clay | % | 100 | 23.1 | 10.7 | 37.5 | 5.38 | 23.25 |
SP | % | 100 | 0.52 | 0.41 | 0.59 | 0.04 | 8.15 |
CCE | % | 100 | 14.94 | 1.25 | 30.25 | 8.89 | 59.61 |
OC | % | 100 | 0.15 | 0.06 | 0.52 | 0.09 | 62.33 |
TN | % | 100 | 0.027 | 0.01 | 0.10 | 0.01 | 69.92 |
ESP | % | 100 | 2.05 | 1.11 | 5.72 | 0.82 | 40.30 |
EC | dS m−1 | 100 | 0.17 | 0.10 | 0.30 | 0.05 | 27.98 |
CEC | Cmolc kg−1 | 100 | 19.66 | 6.25 | 29.00 | 4.77 | 24.29 |
MWD | Mm | 100 | 2.40 | 0.55 | 5.10 | 1.03 | 42.97 |
AP | mg kg−1 | 100 | 13.14 | 6.50 | 21.40 | 3.30 | 25.17 |
AK | mg kg−1 | 100 | 128.6 | 71.5 | 187.5 | 25.42 | 19.76 |
AFe | mg kg−1 | 100 | 3.49 | 0.09 | 9.65 | 2.48 | 71.08 |
AZn | mg kg−1 | 100 | 0.279 | 0.02 | 0.63 | 0.14 | 53.56 |
ACu | mg kg−1 | 100 | 0.433 | 0.04 | 1.26 | 0.24 | 56.05 |
AMn | mg kg−1 | 100 | 1.10 | 0.10 | 2.12 | 0.50 | 46.02 |
SMR | mg CO2 gday−1 | 100 | 137.25 | 75.70 | 205.00 | 33.62 | 24.50 |
BD | g cm−3 | 100 | 1.23 | 1.10 | 1.60 | 0.10 | 8.41 |
Yield | ton ha−1 | 100 | 1.16 | 0.50 | 1.85 | 0.31 | 25.71 |
Soil Indicator | Yield | SQIw-M | SQIw-F | Soil Indicator | Yield | SQIw-M | SQIw-F |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
pH | −0.105 | −0.13 | −0.10 | TN | 0.50 ** | 0.57 ** | 0.50 ** |
Sand | −0.33 ** | −0.50 ** | −0.42 ** | AP | 0.34 ** | 0.64 ** | 0.58 ** |
Clay | 0.42 ** | 0.59 ** | 0.50 ** | AK | 0.44 ** | 0.67 ** | 0.64 ** |
ESP | −0.54 ** | 0.40 ** | −0.33 ** | AZn | −0.03 | −0.06 | −0.03 |
CEC | 0.46 ** | 0.59 ** | 0.53 ** | ACu | −0.11 | −0.13 | −0.11 |
MWD | 0.48 ** | 0.73 ** | 0.66 ** | AMn | 0.28 ** | 0.32 ** | 0.28 ** |
Silt | 0.072 | 0.53 ** | 0.48 ** | SMR | 0.40 ** | 0.70 ** | 0.68 ** |
SP | 0.168 | 0.10 | 0.07 | AFe | 0.12 | 0.13 | 0.11 |
BD | −0.071 | 0.08 | 0.06 | EC | −0.003 | −0.019 | 0.003 |
OC | 0.34 ** | 0.25 ** | 0.25 ** | CCE | 0.027 | 0.07 | 0.02 |
PCs a | PC1 | PC2 | PC3 | PC4 | PC5 | PC6 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Eigenvalue | 1411.8 | 709.4 | 58.1 | 20.3 | 9.7 | 4.2 |
Percent | 0.637 | 0.101 | 0.102 | 0.060 | 0.050 | 0.040 |
Cumulative percent | 0.637 | 0.738 | 0.840 | 0.900 | 0.950 | 0.980 |
Eigenvectors | ||||||
Sand | −0.060 | 0.058 | 0.882 | −0.372 | −0.250 | −0.112 |
Clay | 0.076 | −0.095 | −0.341 | −0.155 | −0.816 | −0.410 |
OC | 0.001 | −0.002 | −0.003 | −0.603 | −0.008 | −0.001 |
ESP | 0.004 | −0.010 | −0.026 | −0.036 | −0.019 | 0.016 |
CEC | 0.034 | −0.063 | −0.282 | −0.889 | 0.335 | −0.088 |
MWD | 0.000 | 0.001 | −0.010 | −0.029 | 0.112 | 0.031 |
TN | 0.000 | −0.000 | −0.001 | −0.002 | −0.003 | 0.001 |
AP | 0.044 | −0.058 | −0.070 | −0.201 | −0.372 | 0.900 |
AK | 0.488 | −0.855 | 0.139 | 0.068 | 0.083 | −0.018 |
AMn | 0.004 | −0.007 | −0.005 | −0.010 | −0.009 | −0.017 |
SMR | 0.866 | 0.499 | 0.027 | −0.005 | 0.013 | −0.003 |
Soil Indicator | Multiple Regression Analysis | Factor Analysis | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Beta b | Weight | COM a | Weight | |
Clay | 0.693 | 0.200 | 0.793 | 0.217 |
Sand | 0.459 | 0.132 | 0.364 | 0.100 |
CEC | 0.615 | 0.177 | 0.715 | 0.196 |
AK | 0.669 | 0.193 | 0.652 | 0.179 |
AP | 0.566 | 0.163 | 0.629 | 0.172 |
SMR | 0.465 | 0.134 | 0.495 | 0.136 |
Index | Area (%) | Grad | I (Very High) | II (High) | III (Moderate) | IV (Low) | V (Very Low) |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
SQIw-M | a | >0.73 | 0.61–0.73 | 0.50–0.61 | 0.50–0.40 | <0.40 | |
Total area | 00.25 | 23.55 | 50.06 | 11.04 | 15.10 | ||
Entisols | 0.00 | 8.42 | 15.78 | 7.99 | 9.31 | ||
Inceptisols | 0.25 | 15.13 | 34.28 | 3.05 | 5.79 | ||
SQIw-F | b | >70 | 0.63–0.70 | 0.52–0.63 | 0.52–0.41 | <0.41 | |
Total area | 1.00 | 26.03 | 48.03 | 18.27 | 6.67 | ||
Entisols | 0.00 | 6.14 | 15.85 | 14.42 | 4.57 | ||
Inceptisols | 1.00 | 19.89 | 32.18 | 3.85 | 2.10 |
Entisols | Inceptisols | ||
---|---|---|---|
Soil Indicator | Mean | Mean | p = (T-test) |
Clay | 22.67 | 23.41 | 0.07 |
Sand | 49.24 | 48.35 | 0.08 |
CEC | 19.24 | 19.89 | 0.07 |
AP | 12.32 | 13.59 | 0.03 |
AK | 122.79 | 131.84 | 0.03 |
SMR | 129.72 | 141.30 | 0.03 |
AZn | 0.23 | 0.30 | 0.04 |
AFe | 3.30 | 3.59 | 0.1 |
ACu | 0.46 | 0.41 | 0.1 |
AMn | 1.11 | 1.10 | 0.1 |
OC | 0.14 | 0.16 | 0.07 |
Soil quality indices | |||
SQIw-M | 0.54 | 0.57 | 0.06 |
SQIw-F | 0.56 | 0.59 | 0.07 |
Yield | 1.12 | 1.20 | 0.06 |
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Nabiollahi, K.; Heshmat, E.; Mosavi, A.; Kerry, R.; Zeraatpisheh, M.; Taghizadeh-Mehrjardi, R. Assessing the Influence of Soil Quality on Rainfed Wheat Yield. Agriculture 2020, 10, 469. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10100469
Nabiollahi K, Heshmat E, Mosavi A, Kerry R, Zeraatpisheh M, Taghizadeh-Mehrjardi R. Assessing the Influence of Soil Quality on Rainfed Wheat Yield. Agriculture. 2020; 10(10):469. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10100469
Chicago/Turabian StyleNabiollahi, Kamal, Eskandari Heshmat, Amir Mosavi, Ruth Kerry, Mojtaba Zeraatpisheh, and Ruhollah Taghizadeh-Mehrjardi. 2020. "Assessing the Influence of Soil Quality on Rainfed Wheat Yield" Agriculture 10, no. 10: 469. https://doi.org/10.3390/agriculture10100469