Sudden Cardiac Death in Patients with Heart Disease and Preserved Systolic Function: Current Options for Risk Stratification
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Epidemiology
3. Risk Stratification of SCD in Patients after Myocardial Infarction without Severe Left Ventricular Dysfunction
3.1. Basal ECG
3.2. Autonomic Dysfunction
3.3. Echocardiography
3.4. Cardiac Magnetic Resonance
3.5. Nuclear Imaging
3.6. Electrophysiological Study
4. Risk Stratification of SCD in Patients with HFpEF
5. Risk Stratification of SCD in Patients with Acute Myocarditis
6. Risk Stratification of SCD in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation
7. Emerging Risk Factors: Genetics, Biomarkers and Obstructive Sleep Apnea
8. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
- Solomon, S.D.; Zelenkofske, S.; McMurray, J.J.; Finn, P.V.; Velazquez, E.; Ertl, G.; Harsanyi, A.; Rouleau, J.L.; Maggioni, A.; Kober, L.; et al. Sudden death in patients with myocardial infarction and left ventricular dysfunction, heart failure, or both. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 352, 2581–2588. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Albert, C.M.; Stevenson, W.G. The Future of Arrhythmias and Electrophysiology. Circulation 2016, 133, 2687–2696. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Stecker, E.C.; Reinier, K.; Marijon, E.; Narayanan, K.; Teodorescu, C.; Uy-Evanado, A.; Gunson, K.; Jui, J.; Chugh, S.S. Public health burden of sudden cardiac death in the United States. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2014, 7, 212–217. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Moss, A.J.; Hall, W.J.; Cannom, D.S.; Daubert, J.P.; Higgins, S.L.; Klein, H.; Levine, J.H.; Saksena, S.; Waldo, A.L.; Wilber, D.; et al. Improved survival with an implanted defibrillator in patients with coronary disease at high risk for ventricular arrhythmia. Multicenter Automatic Defibrillator Implantation Trial Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1996, 335, 1933–1940. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bardy, G.H.; Lee, K.L.; Mark, D.B.; Poole, J.E.; Packer, D.L.; Boineau, R.; Domanski, M.; Troutman, C.; Anderson, J.; Johnson, G.; et al. Amiodarone or an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator for congestive heart failure. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 352, 225–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Al-Khatib, S.M.; Stevenson, W.G.; Ackerman, M.J.; Bryant, W.J.; Callans, D.J.; Curtis, A.B.; Deal, B.J.; Dickfeld, T.; Field, M.E.; Fonarow, G.C.; et al. 2017 AHA/ACC/HRS Guideline for Management of Patients with Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death: Executive Summary: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm. Society. Circulation 2018, 138, e210–e271. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Priori, S.G.; Blomstrom-Lundqvist, C.; Mazzanti, A.; Blom, N.; Borggrefe, M.; Camm, J.; Elliott, P.M.; Fitzsimons, D.; Hatala, R.; Hindricks, G.; et al. 2015 ESC Guidelines for the management of patients with ventricular arrhythmias and the prevention of sudden cardiac death: The Task Force for the Management of Patients with Ventricular Arrhythmias and the Prevention of Sudden Cardiac Death of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC). Endorsed by: Association for European Paediatric and Congenital Cardiology (AEPC). Eur. Heart J. 2015, 36, 2793–2867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Chatterjee, N.A.; Moorthy, M.V.; Pester, J.; Schaecter, A.; Panicker, G.K.; Narula, D.; Lee, D.C.; Goldberger, J.J.; Kadish, A.; Cook, N.R.; et al. Sudden Death in Patients with Coronary Heart Disease Without Severe Systolic Dysfunction. JAMA Cardiol. 2018, 3, 591–600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Vaduganathan, M.; Patel, R.B.; Michel, A.; Shah, S.J.; Senni, M.; Gheorghiade, M.; Butler, J. Mode of Death in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2017, 69, 556–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zile, M.R.; Gaasch, W.H.; Anand, I.S.; Haass, M.; Little, W.C.; Miller, A.B.; Lopez-Sendon, J.; Teerlink, J.R.; White, M.; McMurray, J.J.; et al. Mode of death in patients with heart failure and a preserved ejection fraction: Results from the Irbesartan in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction Study (I-Preserve) trial. Circulation 2010, 121, 1393–1405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Lam, C.S.; Donal, E.; Kraigher-Krainer, E.; Vasan, R.S. Epidemiology and clinical course of heart failure with preserved ejection fraction. Eur. J. Heart Fail. 2011, 13, 18–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Pellicori, P.; Urbinati, A.; Kaur, K.; Zhang, J.; Shah, P.; Kazmi, S.; Capucci, A.; Cleland, J.G.F.; Clark, A.L. Prevalence and Incidence of Atrial Fibrillation in Ambulatory Patients with Heart Failure. Am. J. Cardiol. 2019, 124, 1554–1560. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kralev, S.; Schneider, K.; Lang, S.; Suselbeck, T.; Borggrefe, M. Incidence and severity of coronary artery disease in patients with atrial fibrillation undergoing first-time coronary angiography. PLoS ONE 2011, 6, e24964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gorgels, A.P.; Gijsbers, C.; de Vreede-Swagemakers, J.; Lousberg, A.; Wellens, H.J. Out-of-hospital cardiac arrest--the relevance of heart failure. The Maastricht Circulatory Arrest Registry. Eur. Heart J. 2003, 24, 1204–1209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stecker, E.C.; Vickers, C.; Waltz, J.; Socoteanu, C.; John, B.T.; Mariani, R.; McAnulty, J.H.; Gunson, K.; Jui, J.; Chugh, S.S. Population-based analysis of sudden cardiac death with and without left ventricular systolic dysfunction: Two-year findings from the Oregon Sudden Unexpected Death Study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006, 47, 1161–1166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hsia, J.; Jablonski, K.A.; Rice, M.M.; Sabatine, M.S.; Zabalgoitia, M.; Maggioni, A.; Cuddy, T.E.; Domanski, M.J.; Geller, N.L.; Flaker, G.; et al. Sudden cardiac death in patients with stable coronary artery disease and preserved left ventricular systolic function. Am. J. Cardiol. 2008, 101, 457–461. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bauer, A.; Barthel, P.; Schneider, R.; Ulm, K.; Muller, A.; Joeinig, A.; Stich, R.; Kiviniemi, A.; Hnatkova, K.; Huikuri, H.; et al. Improved Stratification of Autonomic Regulation for risk prediction in post-infarction patients with preserved left ventricular function (ISAR-Risk). Eur. Heart J. 2009, 30, 576–583. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ikeda, T.; Yoshino, H.; Sugi, K.; Tanno, K.; Shimizu, H.; Watanabe, J.; Kasamaki, Y.; Yoshida, A.; Kato, T. Predictive value of microvolt T-wave alternans for sudden cardiac death in patients with preserved cardiac function after acute myocardial infarction: Results of a collaborative cohort study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2006, 48, 2268–2274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zhou, Y.; Zhou, W.; Folks, R.D.; Manatunga, D.N.; Jacobson, A.F.; Bax, J.J.; Garcia, E.V.; Chen, J. I-123 mIBG and Tc-99m myocardial SPECT imaging to predict inducibility of ventricular arrhythmia on electrophysiology testing: A retrospective analysis. J. Nucl. Cardiol. 2014, 21, 913–920. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Piccini, J.P.; Starr, A.Z.; Horton, J.R.; Shaw, L.K.; Lee, K.L.; Al-Khatib, S.M.; Iskandrian, A.E.; O’Connor, C.M.; Borges-Neto, S. Single-photon emission computed tomography myocardial perfusion imaging and the risk of sudden cardiac death in patients with coronary disease and left ventricular ejection fraction>35%. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010, 56, 206–214. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Haghbayan, H.; Lougheed, N.; Deva, D.P.; Chan, K.K.W.; Lima, J.A.C.; Yan, A.T. Peri-Infarct Quantification by Cardiac Magnetic Resonance to Predict Outcomes in Ischemic Cardiomyopathy: Prognostic Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2019, 12, e009156. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Haanschoten, D.M.; Elvan, A.; Ramdat Misier, A.R.; Delnoy, P.; Smit, J.J.J.; Adiyaman, A.; Demirel, F.; Wellens, H.J.J.; Verheugt, F.W.A.; Ottervanger, J.P.; et al. Long-Term Outcome of the Randomized DAPA Trial. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2020, 13, e008484. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Aro, A.L.; Reinier, K.; Rusinaru, C.; Uy-Evanado, A.; Darouian, N.; Phan, D.; Mack, W.J.; Jui, J.; Soliman, E.Z.; Tereshchenko, L.G.; et al. Electrical risk score beyond the left ventricular ejection fraction: Prediction of sudden cardiac death in the Oregon Sudden Unexpected Death Study and the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study. Eur. Heart J. 2017, 38, 3017–3025. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Gold, M.R.; Bloomfield, D.M.; Anderson, K.P.; El-Sherif, N.E.; Wilber, D.J.; Groh, W.J.; Estes, N.A., 3rd; Kaufman, E.S.; Greenberg, M.L.; Rosenbaum, D.S. A comparison of T-wave alternans, signal averaged electrocardiography and programmed ventricular stimulation for arrhythmia risk stratification. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2000, 36, 2247–2253. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ottervanger, J.P.; Ramdat Misier, A.R.; Zijlstra, F.; Schalij, M.J.; Wever, E.; Jordaens, L.J.; Henriques, J.P.; de Boer, M.J.; Robbe, H.W.; Wellens, H.J.; et al. Implantable defibrillator early after primary percutaneous intervention for ST-elevation myocardial infarction: Rationale and design of the Defibrillator After Primary Angioplasty (DAPA) trial. Am. Heart J. 2006, 152, 636–640. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Exner, D.V.; Kavanagh, K.M.; Slawnych, M.P.; Mitchell, L.B.; Ramadan, D.; Aggarwal, S.G.; Noullett, C.; Van Schaik, A.; Mitchell, R.T.; Shibata, M.A.; et al. Noninvasive risk assessment early after a myocardial infarction the REFINE study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2007, 50, 2275–2284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Huikuri, H.V.; Raatikainen, M.J.; Moerch-Joergensen, R.; Hartikainen, J.; Virtanen, V.; Boland, J.; Anttonen, O.; Hoest, N.; Boersma, L.V.; Platou, E.S.; et al. Prediction of fatal or near-fatal cardiac arrhythmia events in patients with depressed left ventricular function after an acute myocardial infarction. Eur. Heart J. 2009, 30, 689–698. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chew, D.S.; Heikki, H.; Schmidt, G.; Kavanagh, K.M.; Dommasch, M.; Bloch Thomsen, P.E.; Sinnecker, D.; Raatikainen, P.; Exner, D.V. Change in Left Ventricular Ejection Fraction Following First Myocardial Infarction and Outcome. JACC Clin. Electrophysiol. 2018, 4, 672–682. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bigger, J.T., Jr.; Fleiss, J.L.; Kleiger, R.; Miller, J.P.; Rolnitzky, L.M. The relationships among ventricular arrhythmias, left ventricular dysfunction, and mortality in the 2 years after myocardial infarction. Circulation 1984, 69, 250–258. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Epstein, A.E.; Dimarco, J.P.; Ellenbogen, K.A.; Estes, N.A., 3rd; Freedman, R.A.; Gettes, L.S.; Gillinov, A.M.; Gregoratos, G.; Hammill, S.C.; Hayes, D.L.; et al. ACC/AHA/HRS 2008 guidelines for Device-Based Therapy of Cardiac Rhythm. Abnormalities: Executive summary. Heart Rhythm. 2008, 5, 934–955. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Moss, A.J.; Zareba, W.; Hall, W.J.; Klein, H.; Wilber, D.J.; Cannom, D.S.; Daubert, J.P.; Higgins, S.L.; Brown, M.W.; Andrews, M.L.; et al. Prophylactic implantation of a defibrillator in patients with myocardial infarction and reduced ejection fraction. N. Engl. J. Med. 2002, 346, 877–883. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Haugaa, K.H.; Grenne, B.L.; Eek, C.H.; Ersboll, M.; Valeur, N.; Svendsen, J.H.; Florian, A.; Sjoli, B.; Brunvand, H.; Kober, L.; et al. Strain echocardiography improves risk prediction of ventricular arrhythmias after myocardial infarction. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2013, 6, 841–850. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Wu, K.C. Sudden Cardiac Death Substrate Imaged by Magnetic Resonance Imaging: From Investigational Tool to Clinical Applications. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2017, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Disertori, M.; Rigoni, M.; Pace, N.; Casolo, G.; Mase, M.; Gonzini, L.; Lucci, D.; Nollo, G.; Ravelli, F. Myocardial Fibrosis Assessment by LGE Is a Powerful Predictor of Ventricular Tachyarrhythmias in Ischemic and Nonischemic LV Dysfunction: A Meta-Analysis. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2016, 9, 1046–1055. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, E.; Judd, R.M.; Vargas, J.D.; Klocke, F.J.; Bonow, R.O.; Kim, R.J. Visualisation of presence, location, and transmural extent of healed Q-wave and non-Q-wave myocardial infarction. Lancet 2001, 357, 21–28. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wu, E.; Ortiz, J.T.; Tejedor, P.; Lee, D.C.; Bucciarelli-Ducci, C.; Kansal, P.; Carr, J.C.; Holly, T.A.; Lloyd-Jones, D.; Klocke, F.J.; et al. Infarct size by contrast enhanced cardiac magnetic resonance is a stronger predictor of outcomes than left ventricular ejection fraction or end-systolic volume index: Prospective cohort study. Heart 2008, 94, 730–736. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bello, D.; Fieno, D.S.; Kim, R.J.; Pereles, F.S.; Passman, R.; Song, G.; Kadish, A.H.; Goldberger, J.J. Infarct morphology identifies patients with substrate for sustained ventricular tachycardia. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2005, 45, 1104–1108. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Brugada, P.; Green, M.; Abdollah, H.; Wellens, H.J. Significance of ventricular arrhythmias initiated by programmed ventricular stimulation: The importance of the type of ventricular arrhythmia induced and the number of premature stimuli required. Circulation 1984, 69, 87–92. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Bello, D.; Einhorn, A.; Kaushal, R.; Kenchaiah, S.; Raney, A.; Fieno, D.; Narula, J.; Goldberger, J.; Shivkumar, K.; Subacius, H.; et al. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging: Infarct size is an independent predictor of mortality in patients with coronary artery disease. Magn. Reson Imaging 2011, 29, 50–56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Zegard, A.; Okafor, O.; de Bono, J.; Kalla, M.; Lencioni, M.; Marshall, H.; Hudsmith, L.; Qiu, T.; Steeds, R.; Stegemann, B.; et al. Myocardial Fibrosis as a Predictor of Sudden Death in Patients With Coronary Artery Disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2021, 77, 29–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kadish, A.H.; Bello, D.; Finn, J.P.; Bonow, R.O.; Schaechter, A.; Subacius, H.; Albert, C.; Daubert, J.P.; Fonseca, C.G.; Goldberger, J.J. Rationale and design for the Defibrillators to Reduce Risk by Magnetic Resonance Imaging Evaluation (DETERMINE) trial. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. 2009, 20, 982–987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Almehmadi, F.; Joncas, S.X.; Nevis, I.; Zahrani, M.; Bokhari, M.; Stirrat, J.; Fine, N.M.; Yee, R.; White, J.A. Prevalence of myocardial fibrosis patterns in patients with systolic dysfunction: Prognostic significance for the prediction of sudden cardiac arrest or appropriate implantable cardiac defibrillator therapy. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2014, 7, 593–600. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Zaman, S.; Taylor, A.J.; Stiles, M.; Chow, C.; Kovoor, P. Programmed Ventricular Stimulation to Risk Stratify for Early Cardioverter-Defibrillator Implantation to Prevent Tachyarrhythmias following Acute Myocardial Infarction (PROTECT-ICD): Trial Protocol, Background and Significance. Heart Lung Circ. 2016, 25, 1055–1062. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Izquierdo, M.; Ruiz-Granell, R.; Bonanad, C.; Chaustre, F.; Gomez, C.; Ferrero, A.; Lopez-Lereu, P.; Monmeneu, J.V.; Nunez, J.; Chorro, F.J.; et al. Value of early cardiovascular magnetic resonance for the prediction of adverse arrhythmic cardiac events after a first noncomplicated ST-segment-elevation myocardial infarction. Circ. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2013, 6, 755–761. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Robbers, L.F.; Delewi, R.; Nijveldt, R.; Hirsch, A.; Beek, A.M.; Kemme, M.J.; van Beurden, Y.; van der Laan, A.M.; van der Vleuten, P.A.; Tio, R.A.; et al. Myocardial infarct heterogeneity assessment by late gadolinium enhancement cardiovascular magnetic resonance imaging shows predictive value for ventricular arrhythmia development after acute myocardial infarction. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2013, 14, 1150–1158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bulluck, H.; Dharmakumar, R.; Arai, A.E.; Berry, C.; Hausenloy, D.J. Cardiovascular Magnetic Resonance in Acute ST-Segment-Elevation Myocardial Infarction: Recent Advances, Controversies, and Future Directions. Circulation 2018, 137, 1949–1964. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Feistritzer, H.J.; Nanos, M.; Eitel, I.; Jobs, A.; de Waha-Thiele, S.; Meyer-Saraei, R.; Freund, A.; Stiermaier, T.; Abdel-Wahab, M.; Lurz, P.; et al. Determinants and prognostic value of cardiac magnetic resonance imaging-derived infarct characteristics in non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction. Eur. Heart J. Cardiovasc. Imaging 2020, 21, 67–76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Boogers, M.J.; Borleffs, C.J.; Henneman, M.M.; van Bommel, R.J.; van Ramshorst, J.; Boersma, E.; Dibbets-Schneider, P.; Stokkel, M.P.; van der Wall, E.E.; Schalij, M.J.; et al. Cardiac sympathetic denervation assessed with 123-iodine metaiodobenzylguanidine imaging predicts ventricular arrhythmias in implantable cardioverter-defibrillator patients. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2010, 55, 2769–2777. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Dorbala, S.; Hachamovitch, R.; Curillova, Z.; Thomas, D.; Vangala, D.; Kwong, R.Y.; Di Carli, M.F. Incremental prognostic value of gated Rb-82 positron emission tomography myocardial perfusion imaging over clinical variables and rest LVEF. JACC Cardiovasc. Imaging 2009, 2, 846–854. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gatzoulis, K.A.; Tsiachris, D.; Dilaveris, P.; Archontakis, S.; Arsenos, P.; Vouliotis, A.; Sideris, S.; Trantalis, G.; Kartsagoulis, E.; Kallikazaros, I.; et al. Implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy activation for high risk patients with relatively well preserved left ventricular ejection fraction. Does it really work? Int. J. Cardiol. 2013, 167, 1360–1365. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Gatzoulis, K.A.; Tsiachris, D.; Arsenos, P.; Antoniou, C.K.; Dilaveris, P.; Sideris, S.; Kanoupakis, E.; Simantirakis, E.; Korantzopoulos, P.; Goudevenos, I.; et al. Arrhythmic risk stratification in post-myocardial infarction patients with preserved ejection fraction: The PRESERVE EF study. Eur. Heart J. 2019, 40, 2940–2949. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Solomon, S.D.; Wang, D.; Finn, P.; Skali, H.; Zornoff, L.; McMurray, J.J.; Swedberg, K.; Yusuf, S.; Granger, C.B.; Michelson, E.L.; et al. Effect of candesartan on cause-specific mortality in heart failure patients: The Candesartan in Heart failure Assessment of Reduction in Mortality and morbidity (CHARM) program. Circulation 2004, 110, 2180–2183. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Hamaguchi, S.; Kinugawa, S.; Sobirin, M.A.; Goto, D.; Tsuchihashi-Makaya, M.; Yamada, S.; Yokoshiki, H.; Tsutsui, H.; Investigators, J.-C. Mode of death in patients with heart failure and reduced vs. preserved ejection fraction: Report from the registry of hospitalized heart failure patients. Circ. J. 2012, 76, 1662–1669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vaduganathan, M.; Claggett, B.L.; Chatterjee, N.A.; Anand, I.S.; Sweitzer, N.K.; Fang, J.C.; O’Meara, E.; Shah, S.J.; Hegde, S.M.; Desai, A.S.; et al. Sudden Death in Heart Failure With Preserved Ejection Fraction: A Competing Risks Analysis From the TOPCAT Trial. JACC Heart Fail. 2018, 6, 653–661. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Al-Khatib, S.M.; Shaw, L.K.; O’Connor, C.; Kong, M.; Califf, R.M. Incidence and predictors of sudden cardiac death in patients with diastolic heart failure. J. Cardiovasc. Electrophysiol. 2007, 18, 1231–1235. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Adabag, S.; Rector, T.S.; Anand, I.S.; McMurray, J.J.; Zile, M.; Komajda, M.; McKelvie, R.S.; Massie, B.; Carson, P.E. A prediction model for sudden cardiac death in patients with heart failure and preserved ejection fraction. Eur. J. Heart Fail. 2014, 16, 1175–1182. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kalra, R.; Gupta, K.; Sheets, R.; Aryal, S.; Ebrahimi, A.; Rajapreyar, I.; Cribbs, M.G.; Booker, O.J.; Prabhu, S.D.; Bajaj, N.S. Cardiac Function and Sudden Cardiac Death in Heart Failure with Preserved Ejection Fraction (from the TOPCAT Trial). Am. J. Cardiol. 2020, 129, 46–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ammirati, E.; Veronese, G.; Cipriani, M.; Moroni, F.; Garascia, A.; Brambatti, M.; Adler, E.D.; Frigerio, M. Acute and Fulminant Myocarditis: A Pragmatic Clinical Approach to Diagnosis and Treatment. Curr. Cardiol. Rep. 2018, 20, 114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Global Burden of Disease Study, C. Global, regional, and national incidence, prevalence, and years lived with disability for 301 acute and chronic diseases and injuries in 188 countries, 1990–2013: A systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2013. Lancet 2015, 386, 743–800. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Corrado, D.; Basso, C.; Thiene, G. Sudden cardiac death in young people with apparently normal heart. Cardiovasc. Res 2001, 50, 399–408. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Harmon, K.G.; Drezner, J.A.; Maleszewski, J.J.; Lopez-Anderson, M.; Owens, D.; Prutkin, J.M.; Asif, I.M.; Klossner, D.; Ackerman, M.J. Pathogeneses of sudden cardiac death in national collegiate athletic association athletes. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2014, 7, 198–204. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Maron, B.J.; Haas, T.S.; Ahluwalia, A.; Murphy, C.J.; Garberich, R.F. Demographics and Epidemiology of Sudden Deaths in Young Competitive Athletes: From the United States National Registry. Am. J. Med. 2016, 129, 1170–1177. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Ammirati, E.; Cipriani, M.; Moro, C.; Raineri, C.; Pini, D.; Sormani, P.; Mantovani, R.; Varrenti, M.; Pedrotti, P.; Conca, C.; et al. Clinical Presentation and Outcome in a Contemporary Cohort of Patients with Acute Myocarditis: Multicenter Lombardy Registry. Circulation 2018, 138, 1088–1099. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Grani, C.; Eichhorn, C.; Biere, L.; Murthy, V.L.; Agarwal, V.; Kaneko, K.; Cuddy, S.; Aghayev, A.; Steigner, M.; Blankstein, R.; et al. Prognostic Value of Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Tissue Characterization in Risk Stratifying Patients with Suspected Myocarditis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2017, 70, 1964–1976. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Aquaro, G.D.; Perfetti, M.; Camastra, G.; Monti, L.; Dellegrottaglie, S.; Moro, C.; Pepe, A.; Todiere, G.; Lanzillo, C.; Scatteia, A.; et al. Cardiac MR With Late Gadolinium Enhancement in Acute Myocarditis with Preserved Systolic Function: ITAMY Study. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2017, 70, 1977–1987. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Shirani, J.; Freant, L.J.; Roberts, W.C. Gross and semiquantitative histologic findings in mononuclear cell myocarditis causing sudden death, and implications for endomyocardial biopsy. Am. J. Cardiol. 1993, 72, 952–957. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ukena, C.; Mahfoud, F.; Kindermann, I.; Kandolf, R.; Kindermann, M.; Bohm, M. Prognostic electrocardiographic parameters in patients with suspected myocarditis. Eur. J. Heart Fail. 2011, 13, 398–405. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Ucar, F.M.; Ozturk, C.; Yilmaztepe, M.A. Evaluation of Tp-e interval, Tp-e/QT ratio and Tp-e/QTc ratio in patients with acute myocarditis. BMC Cardiovasc. Disord 2019, 19, 232. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Wassnig, N.K.; Gunther, M.; Quick, S.; Pfluecke, C.; Rottstadt, F.; Szymkiewicz, S.J.; Ringquist, S.; Strasser, R.H.; Speiser, U. Experience with the Wearable Cardioverter-Defibrillator in Patients at High Risk for Sudden Cardiac Death. Circulation 2016, 134, 635–643. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Birnie, D.H.; Sauer, W.H.; Bogun, F.; Cooper, J.M.; Culver, D.A.; Duvernoy, C.S.; Judson, M.A.; Kron, J.; Mehta, D.; Cosedis Nielsen, J.; et al. HRS expert consensus statement on the diagnosis and management of arrhythmias associated with cardiac sarcoidosis. Heart Rhythm. 2014, 11, 1305–1323. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Birnie, D.H.; Nery, P.B.; Ha, A.C.; Beanlands, R.S. Cardiac Sarcoidosis. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2016, 68, 411–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Cooper, L.T., Jr.; Berry, G.J.; Shabetai, R. Idiopathic giant-cell myocarditis--natural history and treatment. Multicenter Giant Cell Myocarditis Study Group Investigators. N. Engl. J. Med. 1997, 336, 1860–1866. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Muehlenbachs, A.; Bollweg, B.C.; Schulz, T.J.; Forrester, J.D.; DeLeon Carnes, M.; Molins, C.; Ray, G.S.; Cummings, P.M.; Ritter, J.M.; Blau, D.M.; et al. Cardiac Tropism of Borrelia burgdorferi: An Autopsy Study of Sudden Cardiac Death Associated with Lyme Carditis. Am. J. Pathol. 2016, 186, 1195–1205. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Perez-Molina, J.A.; Molina, I. Chagas disease. Lancet 2018, 391, 82–94. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Rassi, A., Jr.; Rassi, S.G.; Rassi, A. Sudden death in Chagas’ disease. Arq. Bras. Cardiol. 2001, 76, 75–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Rassi, A., Jr.; Rassi, A.; Marin-Neto, J.A. Chagas heart disease: Pathophysiologic mechanisms, prognostic factors and risk stratification. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz. 2009, 104 (Suppl. 1), 152–158. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chioncel, O.; Lainscak, M.; Seferovic, P.M.; Anker, S.D.; Crespo-Leiro, M.G.; Harjola, V.P.; Parissis, J.; Laroche, C.; Piepoli, M.F.; Fonseca, C.; et al. Epidemiology and one-year outcomes in patients with chronic heart failure and preserved, mid-range and reduced ejection fraction: An analysis of the ESC Heart Failure Long-Term Registry. Eur. J. Heart Fail. 2017, 19, 1574–1585. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, L.Y.; Benditt, D.G.; Alonso, A. Atrial fibrillation and its association with sudden cardiac death. Circ. J. 2014, 78, 2588–2593. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Eisen, A.; Ruff, C.T.; Braunwald, E.; Nordio, F.; Corbalan, R.; Dalby, A.; Dorobantu, M.; Mercuri, M.; Lanz, H.; Rutman, H.; et al. Sudden Cardiac Death in Patients With Atrial Fibrillation: Insights From the ENGAGE AF-TIMI 48 Trial. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 2016, 5. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Chen, L.Y.; Sotoodehnia, N.; Buzkova, P.; Lopez, F.L.; Yee, L.M.; Heckbert, S.R.; Prineas, R.; Soliman, E.Z.; Adabag, S.; Konety, S.; et al. Atrial fibrillation and the risk of sudden cardiac death: The atherosclerosis risk in communities study and cardiovascular health study. JAMA Intern. Med. 2013, 173, 29–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Bardai, A.; Blom, M.T.; van Hoeijen, D.A.; van Deutekom, H.W.; Brouwer, H.J.; Tan, H.L. Atrial fibrillation is an independent risk factor for ventricular fibrillation: A large-scale population-based case-control study. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2014, 7, 1033–1039. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Okin, P.M.; Bang, C.N.; Wachtell, K.; Hille, D.A.; Kjeldsen, S.E.; Dahlof, B.; Devereux, R.B. Relationship of sudden cardiac death to new-onset atrial fibrillation in hypertensive patients with left ventricular hypertrophy. Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2013, 6, 243–251. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Vergara, P.; Solimene, F.; D’Onoafrio, A.; Pisano, E.C.; Zanotto, G.; Pignalberi, C.; Iacopino, S.; Maglia, G.; Della Bella, P.; Calvi, V.; et al. Are Atrial High-Rate Episodes Associated with Increased Risk of Ventricular Arrhythmias and Mortality? JACC Clin. Electrophysiol. 2019, 5, 1197–1208. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Stein, K.M.; Euler, D.E.; Mehra, R.; Seidl, K.; Slotwiner, D.J.; Mittal, S.; Markowitz, S.M.; Lerman, B.B. Do atrial tachyarrhythmias beget ventricular tachyarrhythmias in defibrillator recipients? J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 2002, 40, 335–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Ackerman, M.J.; Priori, S.G.; Willems, S.; Berul, C.; Brugada, R.; Calkins, H.; Camm, A.J.; Ellinor, P.T.; Gollob, M.; Hamilton, R.; et al. HRS/EHRA expert consensus statement on the state of genetic testing for the channelopathies and cardiomyopathies: This document was developed as a partnership between the Heart Rhythm. Society (HRS) and the European Heart Rhythm. Association (EHRA). Europace 2011, 13, 1077–1109. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Mellor, G.; Laksman, Z.W.M.; Tadros, R.; Roberts, J.D.; Gerull, B.; Simpson, C.S.; Klein, G.J.; Champagne, J.; Talajic, M.; Gardner, M.; et al. Genetic Testing in the Evaluation of Unexplained Cardiac Arrest: From the CASPER (Cardiac Arrest Survivors With Preserved Ejection Fraction Registry). Circ. Cardiovasc. Genet 2017, 10. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Havmoller, R.; Chugh, S.S. Plasma biomarkers for prediction of sudden cardiac death: Another piece of the risk stratification puzzle? Circ. Arrhythm. Electrophysiol. 2012, 5, 237–243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Albert, C.M.; Ma, J.; Rifai, N.; Stampfer, M.J.; Ridker, P.M. Prospective study of C-reactive protein, homocysteine, and plasma lipid levels as predictors of sudden cardiac death. Circulation 2002, 105, 2595–2599. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
- Empana, J.P.; Jouven, X.; Canoui-Poitrine, F.; Luc, G.; Tafflet, M.; Haas, B.; Arveiler, D.; Ferrieres, J.; Ruidavets, J.B.; Montaye, M.; et al. C-reactive protein, interleukin 6, fibrinogen and risk of sudden death in European middle-aged men: The PRIME study. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2010, 30, 2047–2052. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Kucharska-Newton, A.M.; Couper, D.J.; Pankow, J.S.; Prineas, R.J.; Rea, T.D.; Sotoodehnia, N.; Chakravarti, A.; Folsom, A.R.; Siscovick, D.S.; Rosamond, W.D. Hemostasis, inflammation, and fatal and nonfatal coronary heart disease: Long-term follow-up of the atherosclerosis risk in communities (ARIC) cohort. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2009, 29, 2182–2190. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Berger, R.; Huelsman, M.; Strecker, K.; Bojic, A.; Moser, P.; Stanek, B.; Pacher, R. B-type natriuretic peptide predicts sudden death in patients with chronic heart failure. Circulation 2002, 105, 2392–2397. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Peacock, J.M.; Ohira, T.; Post, W.; Sotoodehnia, N.; Rosamond, W.; Folsom, A.R. Serum magnesium and risk of sudden cardiac death in the Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) Study. Am. Heart J. 2010, 160, 464–470. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Deo, R.; Sotoodehnia, N.; Katz, R.; Sarnak, M.J.; Fried, L.F.; Chonchol, M.; Kestenbaum, B.; Psaty, B.M.; Siscovick, D.S.; Shlipak, M.G. Cystatin C and sudden cardiac death risk in the elderly. Circ. Cardiovasc. Qual. Outcomes 2010, 3, 159–164. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Cappuccio, F.P.; Cooper, D.; D’Elia, L.; Strazzullo, P.; Miller, M.A. Sleep duration predicts cardiovascular outcomes: A systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies. Eur. Heart J. 2011, 32, 1484–1492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
- Kwok, C.S.; Kontopantelis, E.; Kuligowski, G.; Gray, M.; Muhyaldeen, A.; Gale, C.P.; Peat, G.M.; Cleator, J.; Chew-Graham, C.; Loke, Y.K.; et al. Self-Reported Sleep Duration and Quality and Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality: A Dose-Response Meta-Analysis. J. Am. Heart Assoc. 2018, 7, e008552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Gottlieb, D.J.; Yenokyan, G.; Newman, A.B.; O’Connor, G.T.; Punjabi, N.M.; Quan, S.F.; Redline, S.; Resnick, H.E.; Tong, E.K.; Diener-West, M.; et al. Prospective study of obstructive sleep apnea and incident coronary heart disease and heart failure: The sleep heart health study. Circulation 2010, 122, 352–360. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Garvey, J.F.; Pengo, M.F.; Drakatos, P.; Kent, B.D. Epidemiological aspects of obstructive sleep apnea. J. Thorac. Dis. 2015, 7, 920–929. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Deo, R.; Albert, C.M. Epidemiology and genetics of sudden cardiac death. Circulation 2012, 125, 620–637. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Morand, J.; Arnaud, C.; Pepin, J.L.; Godin-Ribuot, D. Chronic intermittent hypoxia promotes myocardial ischemia-related ventricular arrhythmias and sudden cardiac death. Sci. Rep. 2018, 8, 2997. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Chadda, K.R.; Fazmin, I.T.; Ahmad, S.; Valli, H.; Edling, C.E.; Huang, C.L.; Jeevaratnam, K. Arrhythmogenic mechanisms of obstructive sleep apnea in heart failure patients. Sleep 2018, 41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Nakamura, T.; Chin, K.; Hosokawa, R.; Takahashi, K.; Sumi, K.; Ohi, M.; Mishima, M. Corrected QT dispersion and cardiac sympathetic function in patients with obstructive sleep apnea-hypopnea syndrome. Chest 2004, 125, 2107–2114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Raghuram, A.; Clay, R.; Kumbam, A.; Tereshchenko, L.G.; Khan, A. A systematic review of the association between obstructive sleep apnea and ventricular arrhythmias. J. Clin. Sleep Med. 2014, 10, 1155–1160. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Koehler, U.; Fus, E.; Grimm, W.; Pankow, W.; Schafer, H.; Stammnitz, A.; Peter, J.H. Heart block in patients with obstructive sleep apnoea: Pathogenetic factors and effects of treatment. Eur. Respir. J. 1998, 11, 434–439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
- Mehra, R.; Benjamin, E.J.; Shahar, E.; Gottlieb, D.J.; Nawabit, R.; Kirchner, H.L.; Sahadevan, J.; Redline, S.; Sleep Heart Health, S. Association of nocturnal arrhythmias with sleep-disordered breathing: The Sleep Heart Health Study. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2006, 173, 910–916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Schlatzer, C.; Bratton, D.J.; Craig, S.E.; Kohler, M.; Stradling, J.R. ECG risk markers for atrial fibrillation and sudden cardiac death in minimally symptomatic obstructive sleep apnoea: The MOSAIC randomised trial. BMJ Open 2016, 6, e010150. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Wang, X.; Zhang, Y.; Dong, Z.; Fan, J.; Nie, S.; Wei, Y. Effect of continuous positive airway pressure on long-term cardiovascular outcomes in patients with coronary artery disease and obstructive sleep apnea: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Respir. Res. 2018, 19, 61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
- Kremers, M.S.; Hammill, S.C.; Berul, C.I.; Koutras, C.; Curtis, J.S.; Wang, Y.; Beachy, J.; Blum Meisnere, L.; Conyers del, M.; Reynolds, M.R.; et al. The National ICD Registry Report: Version 2.1 including leads and pediatrics for years 2010 and 2011. Heart Rhythm. 2013, 10, e59–e65. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Study | Year | CAD | Number of Patients | Baseline Characteristics | FU (y) | Clinical Variables Associated with a Higher Proportional Risk of SCD * | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Age (y) | Women (%) | LVEF (%) | ||||||
Hsia et al. [16] | 2008 | YES | 8290 | 63.9 | 18 | 58 | 4.8 |
|
PRE-DETERMINE [8] | 2018 | YES | 5761 | 64 | 34 | 52 | 3.9 |
|
ISAR-R [17] | 2009 | YES | 142 | 68 | 37 | 46 | 5 |
|
Ikeda et al. [18] | 2006 | YES | 1041 | 64 | 31 | 55 | 2.7 |
|
I-PRESERVE [10] | 2010 | NO | 4128 | 72 | 60 | 59 | 5 |
|
Al-Khatib et al. [19] | 2007 | NO | 1941 | 65 | 55 | 63 | 3.9 |
|
TOPCAT [20] | 2018 | NO | 1767 | 68.6 | 52 | - | 3 |
|
JCARE-CARD [21] | 2012 | NO | 169 | 77.5 | 45 | 57.5 | 2.1 |
|
Trial | Complete Title | Principal Investigator | Study Design | Estimated Enrollment (Patients) | Aim of the Study | Estimated Study Completion Date |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PROFID-Preserved | Personalised Risk Score for Implantation of Defibrillators in Patients with Preserved LVEF > 35% and a High Risk for Sudden Cardiac Death | Gerhard Hindricks, MD | Non-commercial, investigator-driven, prospective, parallel-group, randomized, open-label, blinded outcome assessment, multi-center, superiority trial | 1440 | The objective of the study is to demonstrate that in post-MI patients with preserved LVEF > 35% but high risk for SCD according to a personalized risk score, the implantation of an index group (ICD) is superior to optimal medical therapy (control group) with respect to all-cause mortality. | 31 December 2024 |
ReCONSIDER Study | Arrhythmic Risk Stratification in Nonischemic Dilated Cardiomyopathy | Konstantinos A Gatzoulis, MD | Prospective observational multicenter | 675 | This trial aim to integrate several approaches to arrhythmic risk stratification in nonischemic dilated cardiomyopathy in patients with preserved LVEF > 35% in a tiered, multifactorial, approach, in which noninvasive risk factors are combined with electrophysiologic studies. | 1 May 2025 |
SMART-MI | Implantable Cardiac Monitors in High-Risk Post-Infarction Patients with Cardiac Autonomic Dysfunction | Axel Bauer, MD; Stefan Kaeaeb, MD | Randomized, interventional trial with parallel assessment | 400 | There is a large body of evidence that presence of cardiac autonomic dysfunction is associated with an increased susceptibility to malignant brady- and tachyarrhythmias eventually culminating in SCD in post-MI patients with LVEF >35%. SMART-MI will assess the occurrence and prognostic implications of serious arrhythmic events in this newly identified high-risk group by remote monitoring with ICM. | July 2021 |
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. |
© 2021 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
Share and Cite
Pannone, L.; Falasconi, G.; Cianfanelli, L.; Baldetti, L.; Moroni, F.; Spoladore, R.; Vergara, P. Sudden Cardiac Death in Patients with Heart Disease and Preserved Systolic Function: Current Options for Risk Stratification. J. Clin. Med. 2021, 10, 1823. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10091823
Pannone L, Falasconi G, Cianfanelli L, Baldetti L, Moroni F, Spoladore R, Vergara P. Sudden Cardiac Death in Patients with Heart Disease and Preserved Systolic Function: Current Options for Risk Stratification. Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2021; 10(9):1823. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10091823
Chicago/Turabian StylePannone, Luigi, Giulio Falasconi, Lorenzo Cianfanelli, Luca Baldetti, Francesco Moroni, Roberto Spoladore, and Pasquale Vergara. 2021. "Sudden Cardiac Death in Patients with Heart Disease and Preserved Systolic Function: Current Options for Risk Stratification" Journal of Clinical Medicine 10, no. 9: 1823. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10091823
APA StylePannone, L., Falasconi, G., Cianfanelli, L., Baldetti, L., Moroni, F., Spoladore, R., & Vergara, P. (2021). Sudden Cardiac Death in Patients with Heart Disease and Preserved Systolic Function: Current Options for Risk Stratification. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 10(9), 1823. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm10091823