Next Article in Journal
SARS-CoV-2 Proteins Induce IFNG in Th1 Lymphocytes Generated from CD4+ Cells from Healthy, Unexposed Polish Donors
Next Article in Special Issue
Navigating the Quagmire: Comparison and Interpretation of COVID-19 Vaccine Phase 1/2 Clinical Trials
Previous Article in Journal
Macrophage Activation Assays to Evaluate the Immunostimulatory Capacity of Avibacterium paragallinarum in A Multivalent Poultry Vaccine
Previous Article in Special Issue
The Interplay between Immunosenescence and Microbiota in the Efficacy of Vaccines
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Vaccines
Volume 8
Issue 4
10.3390/vaccines8040672
vaccines-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Review

Current State and Challenges in Developing Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines

by
Carlotta Biagi
1,
Arianna Dondi
1,*,
Sara Scarpini
1,
Alessandro Rocca
1,
Silvia Vandini
2,
Giulia Poletti
1 and
Marcello Lanari
1
1
Pediatric Emergency Unit, Department of Medical and Surgical Sciences (DIMEC), Sant’Orsola University Hospital, 40138 Bologna, Italy
2
Pediatric and Neonatology Unit, Imola Hospital, 40026 Imola (Bologna), Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Vaccines 2020, 8(4), 672; https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8040672
Submission received: 14 October 2020 / Revised: 6 November 2020 / Accepted: 10 November 2020 / Published: 11 November 2020
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Advances in Vaccine Development)
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is the main cause of acute respiratory tract infections in infants and it also induces significant disease in the elderly. The clinical course may be severe, especially in high-risk populations (infants and elderly), with a large number of deaths in developing countries and of intensive care hospitalizations worldwide. To date, prevention strategies against RSV infection is based on hygienic measures and passive immunization with humanized monoclonal antibodies, limited to selected high-risk children due to their high costs. The development of a safe and effective vaccine is a global health need and an important objective of research in this field. A growing number of RSV vaccine candidates in different formats (particle-based vaccines, vector-based vaccines, subunit vaccines and live-attenuated vaccines) are being developed and are now at different stages, many of them already being in the clinical stage. While waiting for commercially available safe and effective vaccines, immune prophylaxis in selected groups of high-risk populations is still mandatory. This review summarizes the state-of-the-art of the RSV vaccine research and its implications for clinical practice, focusing on the characteristics of the vaccines that reached the clinical stage of development.
Keywords:
RSV; vaccine; prevention

1. Introduction

1.1. Epidemiology

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is often responsible for severe seasonal respiratory disease in infants and elderly people, and it causes a great burden on health systems worldwide. RSV clinical presentation in children involves respiratory infections ranging from mild upper to severe lower respiratory tract infections (LRTI), including pneumonia or bronchiolitis [1,2,3,4]; in fact, it was estimated that RSV may cause up to 22% of all severe acute LRTI in young children. A recent systematic review [3] reported that worldwide in 2015, RSV caused 33.1 million episodes of LRTI, resulting in nearly 3.2 million hospitalizations and 59,600 in-hospital deaths in children younger than 5 years. In infants younger than 6 months, RSV caused 1.4 million hospital admissions and 27,300 in-hospital deaths [3]. The estimated overall RSV mortality in 2015 was 118,200 deaths in infants younger than 5 years. Moreover, RSV is responsible for pulmonary morbidity and hospitalizations also in the elderly and high-risk adults [5], causing more than 17,000 deaths for underlying pneumonia and circulatory complications [6]. Risk factors for severe RSV infections in paediatric populations that may require hospitalization and Intensive Care Unit admission include prematurity, chronic lung disease of prematurity or bronchopulmonary dysplasia, hemodynamically significant congenital heart disease, congenital or acquired immunodeficiency and severe neuromuscular disease.

1.2. Molecular Characteristics of Respiratory Syncytial Virus

RSV is an enveloped, non-segmented, negative-sense, single-stranded RNA virus of the Orthopneumovirus genus and Pneumoviridae family. The envelope of RSV includes four proteins associated with the lipid double layer: the matrix (M) protein, the small hydrophobic (SH) protein and the two glycosylated surface proteins: F (Fusion) and G (attachment glycoprotein). The proteins, which are directly involved in infectivity and development of the respiratory disease, are F and G: the G protein determines the attachment of the virus to host epithelial cells, while the F protein is involved in the entry of the virus, through the fusion of viral and cellular membranes, as well as the subsequent insertion of the viral RNA into the host cell; the F protein is also responsible for fusion of infected cells with adjacent cells, resulting in the formation of the characteristic syncytia [7]. Moreover, both F and G proteins induce the neutralizing antibody immune response by the host [8]. Three types of epitopes have been identified in the G protein: (1) conserved epitopes, detectable in all viral strains; (2) group-specific epitopes, expressed only by the same antigenic group; and (3) strain-specific epitopes, which are present only in specific strains of the same antigenic group and expressed in the C-terminal hypervariable region of the G protein ectodomain [9]. The F glycoprotein is derived from an inactive precursor containing three hydrophobic peptides: (1) the N-terminal signal peptide, mediating translocation of the nascent polypeptide into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum; (2) the transmembrane region near the C-terminus, which links the F protein to the cell and viral membranes; and (3) the so-called fusion peptide, which inserts into the target cell membrane and determines the fusion process. The binding of the prefusion F protein to the cell surface is followed by its activation and structural changes, which determine the fusion of the membrane of the virus with the airway epithelial cells of the host and lead to the formation of syncytia. There are two major subgroups of RSV, A and B, usually both detectable during the same epidemic season, even if temporal and geographic clustering may occur [10,11]. RSV infections with Group A have a higher incidence and higher transmissibility than Group B [12]. The antigenic variability between the two groups is determined by differences in the G glycoprotein (35% homology between the G glycoprotein of strains A and B) [13]. For this reason, many antibodies targeting the G protein may be subtype specific, while antibodies against the F protein have a neutralizing effect both against RSV A and B. Vaccine candidates against RSV use different antigenic targets [14]. Most vaccines in clinical trials use the F protein, because it is highly conserved and facilitates viral fusion with host cells. Current vaccine candidates use pre-F and post-F as vaccine antigens. Site zero (∅) of the pre-F protein has been recently discovered and is one of the major antigenic targets [15]. Other less frequent vaccine antigens, used alone or in combination with others, include the RSV envelope associated glycoprotein G and the SH protein, as well as the internal proteins: nucleocapsid (N), M and M2-1. Besides the F protein, the G protein is the only other target for neutralizing antibodies on the viral surface.

1.3. Prophylaxis

Prevention of RSV infection is based on primary and secondary prophylaxis. Preventive measures are critical because an etiologic treatment against RSV is not available. Primary prophylaxis is essentially based on hygienic measures aimed to prevent the diffusion of respiratory virus infections (hand washing, use of face masks in case of symptoms, disinfections of objects and surfaces) [16]. Secondary prophylaxis is based on the administration of monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) to high-risk patients during the epidemic season. The only commercially available mAb is palivizumab, while more recent ones are being studied in ongoing clinical trials [17,18,19]. No vaccine is currently available for active immunization against RSV, even if several are a matter of ongoing clinical trials [14]. One of the hardest challenges in the development of a safe and effective vaccine is enhanced respiratory disease (ERD), a side-effect that occurred in the 1960s subsequently to administration of formalin-inactivated RSV vaccines [20,21]. Moreover, it is still matter of concern if a vaccine determines an absolute protection against RSV infections; encouraging data demonstrate that cell-mediated immunity, mucosal IgA and serum neutralizing antibodies are inversely related to disease severity [14].

1.4. Target Population

Considering the epidemiology of RSV, preventive measures are particularly useful for target populations. Currently, passive immunization with mAbs is reserved for high-risk infants [17], as detailed in national and international guidelines. Risk factors considered in the guidelines for prophylaxis include severe prematurity, congenital heart diseases, bronchopulmonary dysplasia, severe respiratory and neuromuscular diseases. The clinical trials of vaccines against RSV are run on paediatric populations, old adults or pregnant women with the aim to prevent RSV infections in high-risk populations (Table 1). RSV was also observed to affect long-term respiratory morbidity since young infants with RSV LRTI subsequently had an increased risk for asthma and recurrent wheezing [22]. For this reason, the development of a safe and effective vaccine may be useful to prevent the onset of respiratory morbidity if extended to cohorts of naive infants during the first months of life. Since severe RSV infections often involve newborns and very young infants, the strategy of vaccination during pregnancy may be useful to determine an effective immunity at early ages when active immunization is not feasible, as maternal antibodies are transferred efficiently through the placenta. Vaccines in clinical development are grouped into four categories: particle-based, vector-based, subunit and live-attenuated or chimeric vaccines. In the following paragraphs we discuss in detail the different categories of vaccines and the state-of-the-art of the clinical trials.

2. Particle-Based Vaccines

Particle-based vaccines are synthesized by self-assembling nanoscopic particles that expose multiple copies of a selected antigen on their surface and mimic the native virions [23]. Thanks to the high copy number of the selected antigen and the immune-boosting properties of the particle matrix, these vaccines elicit strong humoral and cellular immune responses [23]. Moreover, the lack of the viral genome required for replication make them safe. To date, two nanoparticle-based RSV vaccines have been tested in clinical trials: the RSV F nanoparticle vaccine, without or with an aluminium adjuvant, and SynGEM (Table 2). The RSV F nanoparticle vaccine, developed by Novavax, is composed of recombinant F-proteins, which have the post-F morphology and are formulated with polysorbare 80 [24]. The conformation of the F proteins is a singly cleaved pre-fusogenic form [25,26]. This vaccine candidate is being evaluated in women of childbearing age, pre-school children (2–6 years old) and the elderly (≥60 years old). In Phase I clinical trials, it has proven to be well tolerated and highly immunogenic in all the target populations [27,28,29,30]. Subsequent clinical trials have been conducted in pregnant women and the elderly. ResVax is a maternal RSV F nanoparticle vaccine with an aluminium phosphate adjuvant. It is being developed to protect infants from RSV disease via maternal immunization. ResVax has been shown to be safe in a Phase II trial enrolling 50 healthy third-trimester pregnant women and to elicit RSV neutralizing antibodies and palivizumab-competing antibodies that are efficiently transferred to the infants [31]. This maternal vaccine has been the object of the PREPARE trial, a Phase III multi-country, randomized, placebo-controlled trial evaluating the vaccine efficacy against RSV-LRTI in infants from birth to 90–180 days of life [32]. From December 2015 to March 2019, 4363 pregnant women with expected delivery near the beginning of the RSV season were enrolled in the study. Women were randomized to receive a single intramuscular dose of the vaccine (120 μg RSV-F protein adsorbed to 0.4 mg aluminium) or a placebo between 28 and 36 weeks of pregnancy. ResVax failed to meet the primary outcome of prevention of medically significant LRTI. However, it showed 44% efficacy in reducing RSV-LRTI hospitalization. Moreover, it demonstrated 39.4% efficacy in reducing RSV-specific medically significant LRTI and 58.8% efficacy in reducing RSV-related severe hypoxemia in young infants (<3 months of age). In addition, pneumonia was 49.4% less common in infants of the vaccinees than the placebo recipients [32]. According to these results, ResVax is the first RSV vaccine to show efficacy in a Phase III clinical trials, even if it did not meet the desired primary outcome. Because of the failure to achieve the primary outcome, according to the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and the European Medicines Agency (EMA) recommendations, Novavax will conduct an additional Phase III clinical trial to confirm the efficacy of ResVax [33]. Regarding older adults, the non-adjuvanted RSV F nanoparticle vaccine failed to demonstrate efficacy in a 2015 Phase III clinical trial (RESOLVE trial). This study enrolled 11,850 adults ≥60 years of age randomized to receive 135 µg of the vaccine via intramuscular injection or placebo. The vaccine did not reduce the incidence of RSV-positive moderate to severe LRTI, nor the incidence of all RSV-symptomatic respiratory diseases [34]. However, the vaccine was associated with a 61% reduction in hospitalizations due to exacerbations of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). On the basis of this result, Novavax is planning to start an efficacy trial to evaluate the COPD exacerbations as a prospective endpoint [35]. Following the unsatisfactory results of the RESOLVE trial, in 2017, Novavax conducted a second Phase II clinical trial in the elderly. The aim was to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of single- or two-dose regimens of the RSV F vaccine with and without adjuvants (aluminium phosphate or Matrix-M1). All formulations and regimens were well tolerated. The study showed that both adjuvants increased the magnitude, duration and quality of the immune response versus the non-adjuvanted RSV F vaccine [35]. These data support the inclusion of the RSV F vaccine adjuvant formulations in future elderly trials. Another nanoparticle-based RSV vaccine that has been tested in clinical trials is SynGEM, developed by Mucosis. SynGEM is a mucosal vaccine containing the RSV F protein in the prefusion conformation bound to a bacterium-like particle (BLP) derived from Lactococcus lactis. BLP has the role to present the vaccine antigen in a more natural conformation and to boost the immune system of the virus [36]. The safety and tolerability of SynGEM have been evaluated in a Phase I trial enrolling 48 healthy volunteers [37]. The participants were randomly assigned to receive intranasal SynGEM (low or high dose) or a placebo according to a prime-boost schedule with the boost vaccination at 28 days after the prime. SynGEM was generally well tolerated and induce persistent antibody responses in healthy adults. High-dose recipients (350 mg RSV-F protein, 5 mg BLP) achieved plateau responses in antibody titres after the first dose. SynGEM induced bursts of plasmablast activity and mucosal IgA and elicit systemic RSV-specific antibodies (non-neutralizing and palivizumab-like antibodies) for at least 6 months. However, no detectable RSV neutralizing antibodies (F protein site ∅-specific antibodies) were found, despite preclinical data that had shown protection [38]. Future studies are needed to optimize the immunogenicity of SynGEM. In 2017, Mucosis declared bankruptcy, thus any further development of the vaccine may be planned by other companies. The SynGEM technology platform is now made available by the private company Virtutax [39].
Particle-based vaccines are promising both for young infants through immunization of the pregnant mothers and for the elderly. ResVax has already reached Phase III clinical trials for pregnant women, and hopefully new trials will soon allow its marketing approval. On the other hand, for elderly people, the use of RSV F vaccine adjuvant formulations in future trials may increase the magnitude, duration and quality of the induced immune response.

3. Vector-Based Vaccines

Vector-based vaccines use a carrier vector to deliver RSV antigens and induce an immune response against RSV components exploiting the adjuvant effect of the vector. Due to the chimeric nature of the vectors, there is no risk of reversion to wild-type RSV and of ERD. However, the presence of pre-existing anti-vector immunity or its potential development may challenge the clinical use of these vaccines. To date, eight RSV vector-based vaccines have been tested in clinical trials (Table 3). The MVA-BN-RSV vaccine has been developed by Bavarian Nordic and it is based on a non-replicating modified vaccinia Ankara (MVA) virus, previously used as a vaccine against smallpox [43,44]. This vaccine candidate displays the RSV surface proteins F and G (for both A and B subtypes) and two internal RSV proteins N and M2. A Phase I study has shown that it can induce broad cellular and humoral immune responses against RSV [45]. A subsequent Phase II trial, evaluating the safety and immunogenicity of the vaccine in 420 older adults (≥55 years), showed that it is well tolerated and lead to a persistent immune response for at least 6 months with the possibility to boost it at 12 months [46]. On the basis of these results, a Phase III trial in the elderly has been planned for initiation in 2021 [47]. ReiThera developed two novel, recombinant, viral-vectored vaccine candidates for RSV, PanAd3-RSV and MVA-RSV. Both vaccines use RSV F, N and M2 proteins as antigens, delivered, respectively, by a replication-defective simian Adenovirus (PanAd3) and MVA vector. PanAd3-RSV and MVA-RSV, given in different combinations and by different routes of administration (PanAd3 either intramuscularly or intranasally, MVA intramuscularly), were well tolerated and immunogenic in healthy adults despite pre-existing natural immunity to RSV [48]. Similar results occurred in the elderly, who presented both humoral and cellular vaccine responses in a Phase I study [49]. The development of these vaccines has been halted since 2015. Three other virus-vectored vaccines use an Adenovirus vector to deliver RSV antigens. VXA-RSV-f, developed by Vaxart, is a molecularly adjuvanted Adenovirus serotype 5 based RSV vaccine encoding the F protein. It is being developed for older adults. Oral delivery of this vaccine has been shown to induce a strong humoral response against RSV in cotton rats [50]. Following these pre-clinical results, VXA-RSV-f was tested orally in healthy adults in a Phase I trial. The study ended in September 2017, but the results have not yet been published [51]. Janssen developed Ad26.RSV.Pre-F vaccine for the elderly and children, based on the human Adenovirus strain 26 vector expressing the F protein stabilized in the pre-fusion conformation [52]. This vaccine candidate demonstrated superior efficacy to the previously tested Ad26. RSV.FA2 that displayed post-F as an antigen. A Phase II study evaluated the co-administration of a seasonal influenza vaccine with the Ad26.RSV.preF vaccine in 180 healthy elderly people, showing an acceptable safety profile and no evidence of interference in immune response [53]. Two other Phase II trials are actually ongoing in the elderly. The first one aims to demonstrate the efficacy of the Ad26.RSV.Pre-F vaccine in the prevention of reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction and confirmed the RSV-LRTI when compared to the placebo [54]. The second study evaluates the safety and immunogenicity of the Ad26.RSV.preF and/or RSV pre-F protein combinations [55]. Regarding children, a Phase I/IIa study evaluating the safety and tolerability of two doses given one month apart of Ad26.RSV.preF in adults and RSV-seropositive toddlers ended in April 2020. The results of the study have not yet been published [56]. Moreover, a Phase I/IIa trial started in January 2019 is evaluating whether an intramuscular regimen of thee doses of Ad26.RSV.preF is safe, well tolerated and immunogenic in RSV-seronegative toddlers [57]. ChAd155-RSV, developed by GlaxoSmithKline, is another Adenovirus-based vaccine currently in clinical development. This vaccine is intended for children and uses a viral vector chimpanzee-Adenovirus-155, encoding RSV F, N and M2-1 proteins [58]. In adults previously naturally exposed to RSV, ChAd155-RSV delivered intramuscularly was found to be well tolerated and to elicit specific humoral and cellular immune responses [58]. Phase II clinical trials in seropositive toddlers aged 12 to 23 months [59], and in likely seronegative infants aged 6 and 7 months [60], are still ongoing. Two vector based-vaccines use the parainfluenza virus (PIV) to display RSV antigens, with the aim to induce immunity against both viruses: MEDI-534, developed by MedImmune, and the recombinant Sendai virus vectored RSV (SeVRSV), developed by the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). MEDI-534 is based on a modified bovine PIV3, expressing the human PIV3 fusion, the human PIV3 hemagglutinin-neuraminidase and the RSV F proteins [61]. In a Phase I trial enrolling seropositive children, this live attenuated intranasal vaccine was safe but minimally immunogenic [62]. When tested in seronegative infants, who are the target population for this vaccine, MEDI-534 was well tolerated and induced an immune response against RSV in about 50% of the subjects and against hPIV3 in all cases [63]. The low immunogenicity against RSV is probably due to a decreased expression of the virus secondary to genetic changes involving the F protein [64]. Therefore, further studies are warranted to reach the genetic stabilization of MEDI-534 and increase the RSV immune response. The other PIV-based vaccine is the SeVRSV vaccine. SeVRSV is a replication-competent Sendai virus, a murine PIV1 strain, that carries the RSV F gene produced by reverse genetics technology. This vaccine has been reported to induce a humoral response and protect the lower respiratory tract from RSV in African green monkeys [65]. A Phase I trial to evaluate the safety and immunogenicity of intranasal SeVRSV in healthy adults has been completed in 2019 [66]. The results have not yet been published.
Vector-based vaccines are potentially good candidates for the paediatric population, because there is no risk of reversion to wild-type RSV and of ERD. These vaccines are still in an initial stage concerning their evaluation. The eight vaccines that have been tested in clinical trials are based on MVA, Adenovirus, bovine PIV or Sendai Virus vectors. The MVA-BN-RSV vaccine is the only one that has passed Phase 2 clinical trial, and a Phase 3 trial in the elderly has been planned for initiation in 2021.

4. Subunit Vaccines

Subunit vaccines are created with RSV protein fragments. They are poorly immunogenic due to their non-replicating nature and their limited components; therefore, booster administration and adjuvants are often necessary to make them effective [70]. This type of vaccine primarily induce a CD4 T cell response [71], with higher risk for vaccine-ERD in seronegative infants [20,21]. The adjuvants’ activity is essential for the creation of neutralizing antibodies and a protective response, thanks to Toll-like receptors stimulation and B-cell affinity maturation, which also help prevent ERD [70]. Nowadays, subunit vaccines are under development only for pregnant women and older people that have already had a previous RSV infection and that are not a risk of developing ERD [14] (Table 4). The most appropriate protein to design subunit vaccines is the F protein, mostly in prefusion conformation [71]. The postfusion conformation lacks important antigenic sites [72] and this could be the reason for the failure of some candidate vaccines [73]. NIAID is developing VRC-RSVRGP084-00-VP, a prefusion F-based RSV vaccine. The protein contained in this vaccine candidate is DS-Cav1, a secreted variant of F glycoprotein that has been stabilized in the prefusion native conformation thanks to protein engineering [74]. The Phase I trial of VRC 317 has recently been concluded (April 2020), and the results are expected to be published soon. During the trial, this vaccine has been tested in healthy adults with or without an aluminium adjuvant, with the aim of monitoring safety, tolerability and immunogenicity [75]. Preliminary results that were published in 2019 are promising: DS-Cav1 is able to increase the RSV neutralizing activity in serum from 7- to 15-fold, increasing the pre-F-specific antibodies [76]. Another vaccine candidate based on the prefusion F protein is being developed by Pfizer. There are two ongoing Phase I/II trials (with and without adjuvant) who enlist healthy adults of various age groups. Participants from certain arms of the studies will concomitantly receive a seasonal inactivated influenza vaccine. These trials will be completed at the end of 2020 and in 2021 [71,77,78]. Meanwhile, the Phase IIb trial, concluded in December 2019, recruited a group of healthy non-pregnant women (18–49 years old) to which the Pfizer’s vaccine candidate was given together with diphtheria/tetanus/pertussis vaccine [79]. There is a last Pfizer’s trial in progress: a Phase IIb study currently in progress will evaluate the safety, tolerability and immunogenicity of the stabilized prefusion F subunit vaccine in pregnant participants and will assess the safety and characteristics of the transplacentally transferred antibodies in their infants [80]. DepoVax (DPX)-RSV is a candidate based on the ectodomain of the SH protein (She), presented with a novel lipid-based formulation (DepoVax) that ensures a prolonged exposure of the antigen. Phase I results have shown a good safety profile and a sustained serum IgG response (lasting more than a year) [81]. Phase II has not yet started [82]. G glycoprotein was also used to create a subunit vaccine candidate, BARS13: the Phase I study has involved healthy adult volunteers, but the results have not yet been published [82,83]. Unfortunately, the vaccine called GSK3003891A, after two Phase I trials and three Phase II studies that have established its safety and immunogenicity, is no longer under development because of the instability of the pre-F antigen during manufacturing [14,71,82]. However, GSK is working on two new candidates, in either a prefusion or an undisclosed conformation: GSK3888550A, with pregnant women as the target population, and GSK3844766A, designed for older adults [82]. With regard to the first vaccine, only a Phase I trial has been concluded, but the results have not yet been published; a Phase II trial is assessing the safety and immune response in healthy pregnant women and in infants born to vaccinated mothers, and will be concluded in 2021 [84,85,86]. MEDI-7510, a subunit vaccine developed by MedImmune, has been proven to be immunogenic but it did not protect older adults from RSV illness in a Phase IIb trial, so studies to develop it are no longer in progress [87].
Subunit vaccines can be considered a safe choice: they do not contain live viruses that could return to a virulent state and they cannot induce an exceeding immune response. However, owing to concerns of ERD associated with protein-based vaccines, they are potentially good candidates only for pregnant women and the elderly. Observing the concluded trials and the studies in progress, induction of protective immunity and obtaining F protein conformation stability remain the major unsolved problems for creating an effective subunit vaccine.

5. Live-Attenuated and Chimeric Vaccines

Live-attenuated RSV vaccines (RSV-LAVs) are produced with versions of RSV that are able to replicate but have been modified to discourage severe disease. They can be created by traditional techniques (i.e., temperature or chemical sensitivity) or, thanks to an improved understanding of the RSV viral genome, by reverse genetics to create an attenuated replication-competent vaccine [91]. ERD has not been observed with RSV-LAVs or replicating vaccine vectors. For this reason, these candidates can be considered safe for naive-RSV infants [20,92]. Furthermore, RSV-LAVs have other benefits: the ability to replicate in the respiratory tract despite the presence of maternal antibodies, the capacity to promote both a humoral and cellular immune response and the possibility to be administered as nasal drops, which are less invasive and better tolerated in children [93,94] (Table 5). Most vaccines are in Phase I and no candidates of this type have progressed beyond Phase II clinical trials. Anyway, the replicative nature of RSV-LAVs and their major safety compared to other types of vaccine make them an attractive strategy for seronegative infants. A promising strategy involves deletion of the RNA synthesis regulatory protein M2-2, resulting in increased viral RNA gene transcription and antigen expression but decreased genome replication. Two candidate vaccines, MEDI/ΔM2-2 and LID/ΔM2-2, have originally been evaluated. Both induced strong RSV-neutralizing antibody responses; however, the LID/ΔM2-2 vaccine has been considered more effective, as it confers a slight increase in replication [95,96]. Although LID/ΔM2-2 was well tolerated in the Phase I study, the higher replication might make it poorly tolerated when administrated to a larger population. Other candidates containing the M2-2 protein mutations have been tested. LID/cp/ΔM2-2, designed with the insertion of a set of five defined point mutations originally derived from serial cold passage, resulted in an over-attenuated vaccine that had low infectivity and low-titre antibodies in only a fraction of the participants, thus being not suitable for further development [97]. Another vaccine constructed by the addition of the genetically stabilized mutation 1030s, LID/ΔM2-2/1030s, was investigated in a Phase I study [98]. This candidate was more attenuated than the parent vaccine with vaccine-induced titres of serum RSV-neutralizing antibodies, essentially equivalent to a primary RSV infection [98]. These characteristics make this candidate very attractive for further investigations. D46/NS2/N/ΔM2-2-HindIII was built on the LID backbone but with several modifications that are expected to generate a phenotype similar to MEDI/ΔM2-2. This vaccine has been demonstrated to have a greater attenuation than LID/ΔM2-2, but considerably higher peak viral titres than MEDI/ΔM2-2 [99]. The pre-fusion RSV protein is a structural protein that plays an important role as a natural immunogen. Stobart et al. identified a chimeric RSV strain with enhanced pre-fusion antigen levels, thermostability and immunogenicity, despite heavy attenuation in the airways of cotton rats generating a promising RSV-LAV candidate [100]. The results of this Phase I clinical trial have not yet been published. MEDI-559, a candidate that contains five attenuating mutations involving the nucleoprotein and fusion, the large polymerase M2-1 and M2-2 proteins, was a promising candidate. However, after administration, it appeared to be genetically unstable, leading to a partial loss of its phenotype: it was more biologically active and immunogenic in vitro than in vivo, and showed a higher risk of LRTI [101]. RSVcps2 represents the stabilized version of the MEDI-559 vaccine. In a Phase I clinical trial, RSVcps2 was well tolerated and moderately immunogenic [102]. Another promising strategy involves deletion of the non-structural (NS) proteins 1 and 2, which modulate the immune response to promote transforming growth factor-β-mediated cell cycle arrest and viral replication [103]. In fact, it has been seen that deletion of the NS2 gene diminished RSV replication in chimpanzees [104]. The increased interferon response to infection may enhance the adaptive immune response, as has been demonstrated in calves [105]. NS2 also functions as a pathogenicity factor, promoting epithelial cell shedding in vitro and in a hamster model, potentially contributing to small airway disease [106]. Karron et al. conducted a stepwise Phase I evaluation of RSV/ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L, demonstrating that it is attenuated yet immunogenic in RSV seronegative children [107]. Other RSV-LAVs that include NS2 or NS1 gene modification, such as RSV 6120/∆NS2/1030s and RSV 6120/ΔNS1, are under investigation. The results have not yet been published [108,109,110,111].
LAV candidates are considered safe for clinical evaluation in children because these vaccines are not expected to cause ERD. RSV-LAVs are able to generate a robust immune response and, thanks to their safety and nature, can be administered also to infants. Another advantage is that this type of vaccine is administered intranasally, avoiding the use of needles. Even if most clinical trials are only in Phase I, RSV-LAVs represent promising candidates worth of further investigation.
The only chimeric vaccine candidate is rBCG-N-hRSV [112]. It consists of the bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) vaccine expressing the nucleoprotein (N) of RSV. It is delivered via a BCG strain and induces a Th1 and a humoral response. It is the only LAV that combines protection against two respiratory pathogens, Mycobacterium tuberculosis and RSV. Furthermore, it could be safe for administration to newborn babies. Céspedes et al. demonstrated that this vaccine is safe, showing no side effects in mice. A Phase I clinical trial on adults has been conducted, even if the results have not been reported yet [113].

6. Monoclonal Antibodies

In parallel with the development of a vaccine, passive immunoprophylaxis has also been studied as an alternative approach to RSV prevention. Before the year 2000, studies had already shown that intravenous immunoglobulins against RSV prevent severe RSV respiratory disease, and in 1996, RespiGam (Massachusetts Public Health Biologic Laboratories, and MedImmune) was approved by the FDA for use in high-risk groups [116] (Table 6). The new millennium has seen the development of humanized mAb directed against the F and G surface glycoproteins encoded by RSV. The first and most studied mAb is palivizumab (MEDI-493, Synagis, MedImmune, Inc., Gaithersburg, MD). It is a humanized IgG1 mAb that binds to the F-RSV surface glycoprotein and is currently the only mAb licensed for the RSV infection in infants and children, whose indications are now restricted to premature birth, chronic lung disease and hemodynamically significant congenital heart disease [17]. Despite its great effectiveness, palivizumab has important limitations, such as needing to be administered by intramuscular injection once a month during the RSV season and a high cost, which make this approach unfeasible for healthy infants. Consequently, more recent research has pointed to the development of antibodies with a higher potency or with an extended serum half-life [116,117]. A first attempt has been done with motavizumab (MEDI-524, MedImmune). This is an RSV-specific mAb developed by remodelling the heavy and light chains of palivizumab, so that an approximately 70-fold higher affinity for the F protein of RSV and 20-fold higher potency than palivizumab were obtained [118]. Many trials have been conducted in infants, comparing motavizumab to the placebo or to palivizumab, and they have shown that motavizumab has a pharmacokinetic profile similar to palivizumab [118]. Given the likelihood that both products could be available concurrently for commercial use, and that children could receive both agents during the same RSV season, a specific trial was conducted in which infants received, sequentially, motavizumab and palivizumab, demonstrating similar results in terms of efficacy and safety [119]. Motavizumab showed comparable results to palivizumab also when tested in 1236 children with hemodynamically significant congenital heart disease [120]. Nevertheless, in a very large Phase III, randomized, double-blind, palivizumab-controlled study enrolling a total of 6635 children, a large number of cutaneous adverse events was reported in the motavizumab cohort, and the FDA decided not to approve its license [116,121]. Eventually, the effect of motavizumab on RSV viral load has also been studied, with an apparent antiviral activity that could not be confirmed in subsequent trials [122,123]. Another tested product is suptavumab, also called REGN2222, an IgG1 monoclonal antibody directed against the RSV F glycoprotein, conceived for prophylaxis in infants who do not meet the criteria for palivizumab use. In 2015, a first-in-human study, on 132 healthy adults who received intravenously or intramuscularly REGN2222 compared to the placebo, demonstrated that suptavumab was well tolerated at all evaluated doses without serious adverse events or dose-limiting toxicities [124]. More recently, a Phase III trial enrolling preterm infants (<35 weeks and 6 days of gestational age) with less than 6 months of age was conducted. In August 2017, the Sponsor Agency announced that suptavumab did not meet its primary endpoint of preventing medically attended RSV infections in infants, so this mAb was discontinued [125]. A new possibility is represented by MEDI8897, also known as nirsevimab, a mAb that targets antigenic site ∅ on the pre-F conformation of RSV, and whose half-life has been increased three-fold with a triple amino acid substitutions, reaching the possibility of protection against RSV for an entire season with a single intramuscular injection [117]. Many randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trials, conducted first in healthy adults and then in healthy preterm infants, have shown a favourable safety profile and a mean half-life of about 80–120 days for nirsevimab, so that it could be proposed as a once-per-RSV-season prophylactic agent [126,127]. In another trial, comparison between 969 infants who received nirsevimab and 484 infants who received placebo revealed a significantly lower RSV-LRTI incidence and hospitalization rate for MEDI-8897 vs. the placebo [19]. Given these promising data, a Phase III study is currently enrolling healthy late preterm and term infants, to determine the efficacy for MEDI-8897 in this population who would not be eligible to receive RSV prophylaxis [128]. Moreover, in July 2019, a Phase II/III randomized, double-blind, palivizumab-controlled study was started to evaluate the safety of MEDI-8897 compared to palivizumab in high-risk children [129]. Finally, nirsevimab will be tested in a Phase II, open-label, uncontrolled, single-dose study to evaluate its efficacy in immunocompromised Japanese children aged ≤2 years [130]. Lastly, MK-1654 is another studied mAb, binding to site IV of the F glycoprotein, with an extended half-life. A first double-blind, Phase I study involving 152 healthy adults has shown an apparent half-life of 70–85 days with a safety profile similar to the placebo [131,132]. Subsequently, a new trial was conducted, enrolling 80 healthy adults to determine if a single intravenous dose of MK-1654 might decrease the viral RSV load compared to the placebo. This Phase IIa double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled study ended in March 2020, and the results are not available yet [133]. Another double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, single ascending dose study enrolling 180 healthy pre-term or full-term (29 weeks of gestational age or higher) infants receiving one of four dose levels of MK-1654 intramuscularly started in September 2018 and it is still recruiting [134].
The use of passive prophylaxis is an alternative to active vaccination. The success of palivizumab and the challenges related to the development of an effective RSV vaccine have spurred new research in this field. However, the high cost of passive prophylaxis is still limiting its use and calls for the development of a cost-effective vaccine.

7. Conclusions

Development of an effective vaccine to protect high-risk groups from severe RSV infections is of critical importance, but still challenging. Different antigens and vaccine formats should be considered for different target populations (children, the elderly and pregnant women). To date, the formats that are being evaluated are particle-based vaccines, vector-based vaccines, subunit vaccines and LAVs. Currently, the only vaccine that has reached Phase III clinical trials is a maternal RSV F nanoparticle vaccine, which showed efficacy in reducing hospitalization and RSV-LRTI in young infants, but did not meet the desired primary outcome, so future trials are needed to confirm its efficacy. The same vaccine with adjuvants was safe and immunogenic in the elderly, and future clinical trials will evaluate its efficacy. Only one vector-based vaccine has passed a Phase II clinical trial, and a Phase III trial in the elderly has been planned for initiation in 2021. Subunit vaccines are potentially good candidates for pregnant women and the elderly; induction of protective immunity and obtaining F protein conformation stability remain the major unsolved problems for creating an effective subunit vaccine. Most clinical trials for RSV-LAVs are only in Phase I, but these vaccines represent promising candidates worthy of further investigation as they are able to generate a robust immune response and, thanks to their safety and nature, can be administered also to infants. While waiting for commercially available safe and effective vaccines, immune prophylaxis in selected groups of high-risk populations is still mandatory. Monoclonal antibodies with a better cost-effectiveness ratio than palivizumab, such as nirsevimab or MK-1654, are the subjects of clinical trials. In young infants, combining the use of passive immunization via maternal vaccination or mAbs, followed by paediatric active immunization, may be effective to prevent severe RSV infection. Research on this topic is still of utmost importance.

Author Contributions

C.B., A.D. and M.L. contributed to the manuscript’s concept; C.B., A.D., S.S., A.R., S.V. and G.P. contributed to the update of the literature review and to the writing and drafting of the article; M.L. revised the entire manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research received no external funding.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Stein, R.T.; Bont, L.J.; Zar, H.; Polack, F.P.; Park, C.; Claxton, A.; Borok, G.; Butylkova, Y.; Wegzyn, C. Respiratory syncytial virus hospitalization and mortality: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Pediatr. Pulmonol. 2017, 52, 556–569. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  2. Iwane, M.K.; Chaves, S.S.; Szilagyi, P.G.; Edwards, K.M.; Hall, C.B.; Staat, M.A.; Brown, C.J.; Griffin, M.R.; Weinberg, G.A.; Poehling, K.A.; et al. Disparities between black and white children in hospitalizations associated with acute respiratory illness and laboratory-confirmed influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in 3 US Counties—2002–2009. Am. J. Epidemiol. 2013, 177, 656–665. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  3. Nair, H.; Nokes, D.J.; Gessner, B.D.; Dherani, M.; Madhi, S.A.; Singleton, R.J.; O’Brien, K.L.; Roca, A.; Wright, P.F.; Bruce, N.; et al. Global burden of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet Lond. Engl. 2010, 375, 1545–1555. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  4. Shi, T.; McAllister, D.A.; O’Brien, K.L.; Simoes, E.A.F.; Madhi, S.A.; Gessner, B.D.; Polack, F.P.; Balsells, E.; Acacio, S.; Aguayo, C.; et al. Global, regional, and national disease burden estimates of acute lower respiratory infections due to respiratory syncytial virus in young children in 2015: A systematic review and modelling study. Lancet 2017, 390, 946–958. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  5. Falsey, A.R.; Hennessey, P.A.; Formica, M.A.; Cox, C.; Walsh, E.E. Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in Elderly and High-Risk Adults. N. Engl. J. Med. 2005, 352, 1749–1759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Thompson, W.W.; Shay, D.K.; Weintraub, E.; Brammer, L.; Cox, N.; Anderson, L.J.; Fukuda, K. Mortality associated with influenza and respiratory syncytial virus in the United States. JAMA 2003, 289, 179–186. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Vandini, S.; Biagi, C.; Lanari, M. Respiratory syncytial virus: The influence of serotype and genotype variability on clinical course of infection. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2017, 18, 1717. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Melero, J.A.; Mas, V.; McLellan, J.S. Structural, antigenic and immunogenic features of respiratory syncytial virus glycoproteins relevant for vaccine development. Vaccine 2017, 35, 461–468. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  9. Martinez, I.; Valdes, O.; Delfraro, A.; Arbiza, J.; Russi, J.; Melero, J.A. Evolutionary pattern of the G glycoprotein of human respiratory syncytial viruses from antigenic group B: The use of alternative termination codons and lineage diversification. J. Gen. Virol. 1999, 80, 125–130. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  10. Hendry, R.M.; Talis, A.L.; Godfrey, E.; Anderson, L.J.; Fernie, B.F.; McIntosh, K. Concurrent circulation of antigenically distinct strains of respiratory syncytial virus during community outbreaks. J. Infect. Dis. 1986, 153, 291–297. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Venter, M.; Madhi, S.A.; Tiemessen, C.T.; Schoub, B.D. Genetic diversity and molecular epidemiology of respiratory syncytial virus over four consecutive seasons in South Africa: Identification of New Subgroup A and B Genotypes. J. Gen. Virol. 2001, 82, 2117–2124. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. White, L.J.; Waris, M.; Cane, P.A.; Nokes, D.J.; Medley, G.F. The transmission dynamics of groups A and B Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus (HRSV) in England & Wales and Finland: Seasonality and cross-protection. Epidemiol. Infect. 2005, 133, 279–289. [Google Scholar]
  13. Johnson, T.R.; Graham, B.S. Contribution of respiratory syncytial virus g antigenicity to vaccine-enhanced illness and the implications for severe disease during primary respiratory syncytial virus infection. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2004, 23, S46–S57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  14. Mazur, N.I.; Higgins, D.; Nunes, M.C.; Melero, J.A.; Langedijk, A.C.; Horsley, N.; Buchholz, U.J.; Openshaw, P.J.; McLellan, J.S.; Englund, J.A.; et al. Respiratory syncytial virus network (ReSViNET) foundation. The respiratory syncytial virus vaccine landscape: Lessons from the graveyard and promising candidates. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2018, 18, e295–e311. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  15. Hashimoto, K.; Hosoya, M. Neutralizing epitopes of RSV and Palivizumab resistance in Japan. FUKUSHIMA J. Med. Sci. 2017, 63, 127–134. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  16. RSV|Prevention|Respiratory Syncytial Virus|CDC. Available online: https://www.cdc.gov/rsv/about/prevention.html (accessed on 1 October 2020).
  17. Resch, B. Product review on the monoclonal antibody Palivizumab for prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection. Hum. Vaccines Immunother. 2017, 13, 2138–2149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  18. Mac, S.; Sumner, A.; Duchesne-Belanger, S.; Stirling, R.; Tunis, M.; Sander, B. Cost-Effectiveness of Palivizumab for respiratory syncytial virus: A systematic review. Pediatrics 2019, 143. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Griffin, M.P.; Yuan, Y.; Takas, T.; Domachowske, J.B.; Madhi, S.A.; Manzoni, P.; Simões, E.A.F.; Esser, M.T.; Khan, A.A.; Dubovsky, F.; et al. Nirsevimab study group. Single-Dose Nirsevimab for prevention of RSV in preterm infants. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 383, 415–425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Kim, H.W.; Canchola, J.G.; Brandt, C.D.; Pyles, G.; Chanock, R.M.; Jensen, K.; Parrott, R.H. Respiratory Syncytial Virus disease in infants despite prior administrationof antigenic inactivated vaccine 12. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1969, 89, 422–434. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Kapikian, A.Z.; Mitchell, R.H.; Chanock, R.M.; Shvedoff, R.A.; Stewart, C.E. An epidemiologic study of altered clinical reactivity to Respiratory Syncytial (RS) Virus infection in childern previously vaccinated with an inactivated RS Virus vaccine. Am. J. Epidemiol. 1969, 89, 405–421. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Blanken, M.O.; Rovers, M.M.; Molenaar, J.M.; Winkler-Seinstra, P.L.; Meijer, A.; Kimpen, J.L.L.; Bont, L. Dutch RSV neonatal network. respiratory Syncytial Virus and recurrent wheeze in healthy preterm infants. N. Engl. J. Med. 2013, 368, 1791–1799. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  23. Jeong, H.; Seong, B.L. Exploiting Virus-like particles as innovative vaccines against emerging viral infections. J. Microbiol. 2017, 55, 220–230. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  24. Smith, G.; Wu, Y.; Massare, M.; Liu, Y. Recombinant Nanoparticle Rsv F Vaccine for Respiratory Syncytial Virus. WO2013049342A1. 2013. Available online: https://patents.google.com/patent/WO2013049342A1/en (accessed on 10 November 2020).
  25. Gilbert, B.E.; Patel, N.; Lu, H.; Liu, Y.; Guebre-Xabier, M.; Piedra, P.A.; Glenn, G.; Ellingsworth, L.; Smith, G. Respiratory Syncytial Virus fusion nanoparticle vaccine immune responses target multiple neutralizing epitopes that contribute to protection against wild-type and palivizumab-resistant mutant virus challenge. Vaccine 2018, 36, 8069–8078. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  26. Smith, G.; Raghunandan, R.; Wu, Y.; Liu, Y.; Massare, M.; Nathan, M.; Zhou, B.; Lu, H.; Boddapati, S.; Li, J.; et al. Respiratory syncytial virus fusion glycoprotein expressed in insect cells form protein nanoparticles that induce protective immunity in cotton rats. PLoS ONE 2012, 7, e50852. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Glenn, G.M.; Fries, L.F.; Thomas, D.N.; Smith, G.; Kpamegan, E.; Lu, H.; Flyer, D.; Jani, D.; Hickman, S.P.; Piedra, P.A. A randomized, blinded, controlled, dose-ranging study of a respiratory syncytial virus recombinant fusion (F) nanoparticle vaccine in healthy women of childbearing age. J. Infect. Dis. 2016, 213, 411–422. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  28. August, A.; Glenn, G.M.; Kpamegan, E.; Hickman, S.P.; Jani, D.; Lu, H.; Thomas, D.N.; Wen, J.; Piedra, P.A.; Fries, L.F. A phase 2 randomized, observer-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-ranging trial of aluminum-adjuvanted respiratory syncytial virus f particle vaccine formulations in healthy women of childbearing age. Vaccine 2017, 35, 3749–3759. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Fries, L.; Shinde, V.; Stoddard, J.J.; Thomas, D.N.; Kpamegan, E.; Lu, H.; Smith, G.; Hickman, S.P.; Piedra, P.; Glenn, G.M. Immunogenicity and safety of a respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein (RSV F) nanoparticle vaccine in older adults. Immun. Ageing A 2017, 14, 8. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Novavax Announces Positive Top-Line Data From RSV F Vaccine Phase 1 Clinical Trial in Pediatrics | NovavaxInc. Available online: https://ir.novavax.com/news-releases/news-release-details/novavax-announces-positive-top-line-data-rsv-f-vaccine-phase-1 (accessed on 1 October 2020).
  31. Muňoz, F.M.; Swamy, G.K.; Hickman, S.P.; Agrawal, S.; Piedra, P.A.; Glenn, G.M.; Patel, N.; August, A.M.; Cho, I.; Fries, L. Safety and Immunogenicity of a respiratory syncytial virus fusion (F) protein nanoparticle vaccine in healthy third-trimester pregnant women and their infants. J. Infect. Dis. 2019, 220, 1802–1815. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Madhi, S.A.; Polack, F.P.; Piedra, P.A.; Munoz, F.M.; Trenholme, A.A.; Simões, E.A.F.; Swamy, G.K.; Agrawal, S.; Ahmed, K.; August, A.; et al. Respiratory syncytial virus vaccination during pregnancy and effects in infants. N. Engl. J. Med. 2020, 383, 426–439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Novavax Provides Updates on the Global Pathways to Licensure for ResVaxTM | Novavax Inc. Available online: https://ir.novavax.com/news-releases/news-release-details/novavax-provides-updates-global-pathways-licensure-resvaxtm (accessed on 1 October 2020).
  34. Novavax Announces Topline RSV F Vaccine Data from Two Clinical Trials in Older Adults | Novavax Inc. Available online: https://ir.novavax.com/news-releases/news-release-details/novavax-announces-topline-rsv-f-vaccine-data-two-clinical-trials (accessed on 1 October 2020).
  35. Novavax Announces Positive Topline Data from Phase 2 Older Adult Trial and Provides Path Forward for RSV F Vaccine Programs | Novavax Inc. Available online: https://ir.novavax.com/news-releases/news-release-details/novavax-announces-positive-topline-data-phase-2-older-adult (accessed on 1 October 2020).
  36. Van Braeckel-Budimir, N.; Haijema, B.J.; Leenhouts, K. Bacterium-like particles for efficient immune stimulation of existing vaccines and new subunit vaccines in mucosal applications. Front. Immunol. 2013, 4, 282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  37. Ascough, S.; Vlachantoni, I.; Kalyan, M.; Haijema, B.-J.; Wallin-Weber, S.; Dijkstra-Tiekstra, M.; Ahmed, M.S.; van Roosmalen, M.; Grimaldi, R.; Zhang, Q.; et al. Local and systemic immunity against respiratory syncytial virus induced by a novel intranasal vaccine. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2019, 200, 481–492. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  38. Rigter, A.; Widjaja, I.; Versantvoort, H.; Coenjaerts, F.E.J.; van Roosmalen, M.; Leenhouts, K.; Rottier, P.J.M.; Haijema, B.J.; de Haan, C.A.M. A protective and safe intranasal RSV vaccine based on a recombinant prefusion-like form of the f protein bound to bacterium-like particles. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e71072. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  39. First-in-Human Results of SynGEM Demonstrate that the RSV Vaccine Is Well Tolerated. Available online: https://www.virtuvax.nl/single-post/2019/03/06/First-in-Human-Results-of-SynGEM-Demonstrate-that-the-RSV-Vaccine-Is-Well-Tolerated-and-Capable-of-Inducing-Long-Lasting-Immune-Responses (accessed on 2 October 2020).
  40. Glenn, G.M.; Smith, G.; Fries, L.; Raghunandan, R.; Lu, H.; Zhou, B.; Thomas, D.N.; Hickman, S.P.; Kpamegan, E.; Boddapati, S.; et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a Sf9 insect cell-derived respiratory syncytial virus fusion protein nanoparticle vaccine. Vaccine 2013, 31, 524–532. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  41. Novavax. A Phase II Randomized, Observer-Blind, Placebo- Controlled Study to Evaluate the Immunogenicity and Safety of Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) F Vaccine in Healthy Elderly Subjects and to Estimate the Incidence Rate of Medically-Attended RSV Disease in Vaccine and Placebo Recipients; Clinical Trial Registration NCT02266628; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2017.
  42. Novavax. A Phase II Randomized, Observer-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study to Evaluate the Immunogenicity and Safety of a Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Recombinant F Nanoparticle Vaccine in Healthy Older Adult Subjects Previously Treated With the Same Vaccine, or Placebo, in the Prior Year; and to Estimate the Incidence Rate of RSV Disease and Vaccine Efficacy in Subjects Based on Their RSV F Vaccine Experience Over Two Consecutive Years; Clinical Trial Registration NCT02593071; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2017.
  43. Frey, S.E.; Winokur, P.L.; Salata, R.A.; El-Kamary, S.S.; Turley, C.B.; Walter, E.B.; Hay, C.M.; Newman, F.K.; Hill, H.R.; Zhang, Y.; et al. Safety and immunogenicity of IMVAMUNE® smallpox vaccine using different strategies for a post event scenario. Vaccine 2013, 31, 3025–3033. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  44. von Sonnenburg, F.; Perona, P.; Darsow, U.; Ring, J.; von Krempelhuber, A.; Vollmar, J.; Roesch, S.; Baedeker, N.; Kollaritsch, H.; Chaplin, P. Safety and immunogenicity of modified vaccinia ankara as a smallpox vaccine in people with atopic dermatitis. Vaccine 2014, 32, 5696–5702. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Samy, N.; Reichhardt, D.; Schmidt, D.; Chen, L.M.; Silbernagl, G.; Vidojkovic, S.; Meyer, T.P.; Jordan, E.; Adams, T.; Weidenthaler, H.; et al. Safety and immunogenicity of novel modified vaccinia ankara-vectored rsv vaccine: A randomized phase I clinical trial. Vaccine 2020, 38, 2608–2619. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Jordan, E.; Lawrence, S.J.; Meyer, T.P.H.; Schmidt, D.; Schultz, S.; Mueller, J.; Stroukova, D.; Koenen, B.; Gruenert, R.; Silbernagl, G.; et al. Broad antibody and cellular immune response from a phase 2 clinical trial with a novel multivalent poxvirus-based respiratory syncytial virus vaccine. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, jiaa460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. MVA-BN RSV Vaccine | Bavarian Nordic. Available online: https://www.bavarian-nordic.com/what-we-do/infectious-diseases/rsv.aspx (accessed on 2 October 2020).
  48. Green, C.A.; Scarselli, E.; Sande, C.J.; Thompson, A.J.; de Lara, C.M.; Taylor, K.S.; Haworth, K.; Del Sorbo, M.; Angus, B.; Siani, L.; et al. Chimpanzee adenovirus- and MVA-Vectored Respiratory syncytial virus vaccine is safe and immunogenic in adults. Sci. Transl. Med. 2015, 7, 300ra126. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  49. Green, C.A.; Sande, C.J.; Scarselli, E.; Capone, S.; Vitelli, A.; Nicosia, A.; Silva-Reyes, L.; Thompson, A.J.; de Lara, C.M.; Taylor, K.S.; et al. Novel genetically-modified chimpanzee adenovirus and mva-vectored respiratory syncytial virus vaccine safely boosts humoral and cellular immunity in healthy older adults. J. Infect. 2019, 78, 382–392. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Joyce, C.; Scallan, C.D.; Mateo, R.; Belshe, R.B.; Tucker, S.N.; Moore, A.C. Orally administered adenoviral-based vaccine induces respiratory mucosal memory and protection against RSV infection in cotton rats. Vaccine 2018, 36, 4265–4277. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Vaxart. A Phase 1, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Dose-Ranging Trial to Determine the Safety and Immunogenicity of an Adenoviral-Vector Based Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) F Protein Vaccine (VXA-RSV-f) Expressing Protein F and DsRNA Adjuvant Administered Orally to Healthy Volunteers; Clinical Trial Registration NCT02830932; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2018.
  52. Widjojoatmodjo, M.N.; Bogaert, L.; Meek, B.; Zahn, R.; Vellinga, J.; Custers, J.; Serroyen, J.; Radošević, K.; Schuitemaker, H. Recombinant low-seroprevalent adenoviral vectors Ad26 and Ad35 Expressing the Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) fusion protein induce protective immunity against RSV Infection in cotton rats. Vaccine 2015, 33, 5406–5414. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  53. Sadoff, J.; De Paepe, E.; Haazen, W.; Omoruyi, E.; Bastian, A.R.; Comeaux, C.; Heijnen, E.; Strout, C.; Schuitemaker, H.; Callendret, B. safety and immunogenicity of the Ad26.RSV.pref investigational vaccine coadministered with an influenza vaccine in older adults. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, jiaa409. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  54. Janssen Vaccines & Prevention B.V. A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Phase 2b Study to Assess the Efficacy, Immunogenicity and Safety of an Ad26.RSV.PreF-Based Regimen in the Prevention of RT PCR-Confirmed RSV-Mediated Lower Respiratory Tract Disease in Adults Aged 65 Years and Older; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03982199; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  55. Janssen Vaccines & Prevention B.V. A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Phase 1/2a Study for Safety and Immunogenicity Evaluations for Regimen Selection of Ad26.RSV.PreF and/or RSV PreF Protein Combinations Followed by Expanded Safety Evaluation in Adults Aged 60 Years and Older; Clinical Trial Registration Study/NCT03502707; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  56. Janssen Vaccines & Prevention B.V. A Randomized, Double-Blind, Phase 1/2a Study to Evaluate the Safety, Tolerability and Immunogenicity of Ad26.RSV.PreF in Adults 18 to 50 Years of Age, RSV-Seropositive Toddlers 12 to 24 Months of Age; Clinical Trial Registration study/NCT03303625; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  57. Janssen Vaccines & Prevention B.V. A Randomized, Controlled, Observer-Blind, Phase 1/2a Study to Evaluate the Safety, Reactogenicity, and Immunogenicity of Ad26.RSV.PreF in RSV-Seronegative Toddlers 12 to 24 Months of Age; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03606512; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  58. Cicconi, P.; Jones, C.; Sarkar, E.; Silva-Reyes, L.; Klenerman, P.; de Lara, C.; Hutchings, C.; Moris, P.; Janssens, M.; Fissette, L.A.; et al. First-in-Human randomized study to assess the safety and immunogenicity of an investigational respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) vaccine based on Chimpanzee-Adenovirus-155 Viral vector-expressing RSV fusion, nucleocapsid, and antitermination viral proteins in healthy adults. Clin. Infect. Dis. 2020, 70, 2073–2081. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  59. GlaxoSmithKline. A Study to Evaluate Safety, Reactogenicity and Immunogenicity of GSK Biologicals’ RSV Investigational Vaccine Based on Viral Proteins Encoded by Chimpanzee-Derived Adenovector (ChAd155-RSV) (GSK3389245A) in RSV-Seropositive Infants; Clinical Trial Registration NCT02927873; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  60. GlaxoSmithKline. A Study to Evaluate Safety, Reactogenicity and Immunogenicity of GSK Biologicals’ RSV Investigational Vaccine Based on Viral Proteins Encoded by Chimpanzee-Derived Adenovector (ChAd155-RSV) (GSK3389245A) in Infants; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03636906; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  61. Haller, A.A.; Miller, T.; Mitiku, M.; Coelingh, K. Expression of the Surface glycoproteins of human parainfluenza virus Type 3 by bovine parainfluenza virus type 3, a novel attenuated virus vaccine vector. J. Virol. 2000, 74, 11626–11635. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  62. Gomez, M.; Mufson, M.A.; Dubovsky, F.; Knightly, C.; Zeng, W.; Losonsky, G. Phase-I Study MEDI-534, of a live, attenuated intranasal vaccine against respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza-3 virus in seropositive children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2009, 28, 655–658. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  63. Bernstein, D.I.; Malkin, E.; Abughali, N.; Falloon, J.; Yi, T.; Dubovsky, F. MI-CP149 investigators. phase 1 study of the safety and immunogenicity of a live, attenuated respiratory syncytial virus and parainfluenza virus type 3 vaccine in seronegative children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2012, 31, 109–114. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Yang, C.-F.; Wang, C.K.; Malkin, E.; Schickli, J.H.; Shambaugh, C.; Zuo, F.; Galinski, M.S.; Dubovsky, F.; Tang, R.S. Implication of respiratory syncytial virus (rsv) f transgene sequence heterogeneity observed in phase 1 evaluation of MEDI-534, a live attenuated parainfluenza type 3 vectored RSV vaccine. Vaccine 2013, 31, 2822–2827. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  65. Jones, B.G.; Sealy, R.E.; Rudraraju, R.; Traina-Dorge, V.L.; Finneyfrock, B.; Cook, A.; Takimoto, T.; Portner, A.; Hurwitz, J.L. Sendai virus-based RSV vaccine protects African green monkeys from RSV infection. Vaccine 2012, 30, 959–968. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  66. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). A Phase I Double-Blind Placebo Controlled Trial to Evaluate the Safety and Immunogenicity of Intranasal Sendai Virus Vectored Respiratory Syncytial Virus (SeVRSV) Vaccine in Healthy Adults; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03473002; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2019.
  67. Janssen Vaccines & Prevention B.V. A Randomized, Double-Blind, First-in-Human Phase 1 Study to Evaluate the Safety, Tolerability and Immunogenicity of Two Vaccinations of Ad26.RSV.PreF One Year Apart in Adults Aged 60 Years and Older in Stable Health; Clinical Trial Registration NCT02926430; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2019.
  68. Janssen Vaccines & Prevention B.V. Open Label, Single Arm Phase 1 Study to Evaluate the Shedding, Biodistribution, Safety and Immunogenicity of Ad26.RSV.PreF Vaccine in Adults; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03795441; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2019.
  69. Janssen Vaccines & Prevention B.V. An Exploratory, Phase 2a, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study to Evaluate the Prophylactic Efficacy of a Single Immunization of Ad26.RSV.PreF Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection in a Virus Challenge Model in Healthy 18 to 50 Year-Old Adults; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03334695; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2019.
  70. Jaberolansar, N.; Toth, I.; Young, P.R.; Skwarczynski, M. Recent advances in the development of subunit-based RSV vaccines. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2016, 15, 53–68. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Rossey, I.; Saelens, X. Vaccines against human respiratory syncytial virus in clinical trials, where are we now? Expert Rev. Vaccines 2019, 18, 1053–1067. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. McLellan, J.S. Neutralizing epitopes on the respiratory syncytial virus fusion glycoprotein. Curr. Opin. Virol. 2015, 11, 70–75. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  73. Beugeling, M.; De Zee, J.; Woerdenbag, H.J.; Frijlink, H.W.; Wilschut, J.C.; Hinrichs, W.L.J. Respiratory syncytial virus subunit vaccines based on the viral envelope glycoproteins intended for pregnant women and the elderly. Expert Rev. Vaccines 2019, 18, 935–950. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  74. McLellan, J.S.; Chen, M.; Joyce, M.G.; Sastry, M.; Stewart-Jones, G.B.E.; Yang, Y.; Zhang, B.; Chen, L.; Srivatsan, S.; Zheng, A.; et al. Structure-based design of a fusion glycoprotein vaccine for respiratory syncytial virus. Science 2013, 342, 592–598. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  75. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). VRC 317: A Phase I Randomized, Open-Label Clinical Trial to Evaluate Dose, Safety, Tolerability and Immunogenicity of a Stabilized Prefusion RSV F Subunit Protein Vaccine, VRC-RSVRGP084-00-VP (DS-Cav1), Alone or with Alum Adjuvant, in Healthy Adults; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03049488; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  76. Crank, M.C.; Ruckwardt, T.J.; Chen, M.; Morabito, K.M.; Phung, E.; Costner, P.J.; Holman, L.A.; Hickman, S.P.; Berkowitz, N.M.; Gordon, I.J.; et al. A proof of concept for structure-based vaccine design targeting RSV in humans. Science 2019, 365, 505–509. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Pfizer. A Pahse 1/2, Placbo-Controlled, Randomized, Observer-Blind, Dose-Finding, First-in-Human Study to Describe the Safety, Tolerability, and Immunogenicity of a Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Vaccine in Healthy Adults; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03529773; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  78. Pfizer. A Pahse 1/2, Placbo-Controlled, Randomized, Observer-Blind, Dose-Finding, Irst-in-Human Study to Describe the Safety, Tolerability, and Immunogenicity of an AdjuvantRespiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Vaccine in Healthy Older Adults; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03572062; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  79. Pfizer. A Phase 2b, Placbo-Controlled, Randomized, Observer-Blind Study to Evaluatethe Safety, Tolerability, and Immunogenicity of a Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Vaccine when Administered Concomitantly with Tetanus, Diphteria, and Acellular Pertussis Vaccine (TDAP) in Healthy non Pregnant Women 18 through 49 Years of Age; Clinical Trial Registration NCT04071158; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  80. Pfizer. A Phase 2b, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Observer-Blinded Trial to Evaluate the Safety, Tollerability, and Immunogenicity of a Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Vaccine in Pregnant Women 18 through 49 Years of Age and Their Infants; Clinical Trial Registration NCT04032093; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  81. Langley, J.M.; MacDonald, L.D.; Weir, G.M.; MacKinnon-Cameron, D.; Ye, L.; McNeil, S.; Schepens, B.; Saelens, X.; Stanford, M.M.; Halperin, S.A. A respiratory syncytial virus vaccine based on the small hydrophobic protein ectodomain presented with a novel lipid-based formulation is highly immunogenic and safe in adults: A First-in-humans study. J. Infect. Dis. 2018, 218, 378–387. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. RSV and mAb Trial Tracker—PATH Vaccine Resource Library. Available online: https://vaccineresources.org/details.php?i=2682 (accessed on 3 October 2020).
  83. ANZCTR—Registration. Available online: https://www.anzctr.org.au/Trial/Registration/TrialReview.aspx?id=375236 (accessed on 3 October 2020).
  84. GlaxoSmithKline. A Study to Evaluate the Safety, Reactogenicity and Immunogenicity of GSK Biologicals’ Investigational Unadjuvanted RSV Maternal Vaccine Compared to Placebo When Administered to Healthy Non-Pregnant Women; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03674177; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  85. GlaxoSmithKline. A Phase II Study of 2 Dose Levels of an Investigational RSV Maternal Vaccine, Given Alone or With Boostrix, to Healthy Non-Pregnant Women; Clinical Trial Registration NCT04138056; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  86. GlaxoSmithKline. A Phase II, Randomised, Observer-Blind, Placebo Controlled Multi-Country Study to Assess the Safety, Reactogenicity and Immunogenicity of a Single Intramuscular Dose of GSK Biologicals’ Investigational RSV Maternal Unadjuvanted Vaccine (GSK3888550A), in Healthy Pregnant Women Aged 18 to 40 Years and Infants Born to Vaccinated Mothers; Clinical Trial Registration NCT04126213; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  87. Falloon, J.; Yu, J.; Esser, M.T.; Villafana, T.; Yu, L.; Dubovsky, F.; Takas, T.; Levin, M.J.; Falsey, A.R. An adjuvanted, postfusion F protein–based vaccine did not prevent respiratory syncytial virus illness in older adults. J. Infect. Dis. 2017, 216, 1362–1370. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  88. A Study to Evaluate the Safety and Reactogenicity of DPX-RSV(A), a Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccine. Available online: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT02472548 (accessed on 10 October 2020).
  89. GlaxoSmithKline. Phase I/II, Observer-Blind, Safety, Reactogenicity and Immunogenicity Study of GSK Biologicals’ Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Vaccine GSK3844766A in Subjects Aged 18-40 or 60-80 Years; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03814590; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  90. GlaxoSmithKline. Phase I, Observer-Blind, Safety, Reactogenicity and Immunogenicity Study of GSK’s Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Vaccine GSK3844766A in Japanese Subjects Aged 60-80 Years; Clinical Trial Registration NCT04090658; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  91. Killikelly, A.; Tunis, M.; House, A.; Quach, C.; Vaudry, W.; Moore, D. Overview of the respiratory syncytial virus vaccine candidate pipeline in Canada. Can. Commun. Dis. Rep. 2020, 46, 56–61. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  92. Wright, P.F.; Karron, R.A.; Belshe, R.B.; Shi, J.R.; Randolph, V.B.; Collins, P.L.; O’Shea, A.F.; Gruber, W.C.; Murphy, B.R. The absence of enhanced disease with wild type respiratory syncytial virus infection occurring after receipt of live, attenuated, respiratory syncytial virus vaccines. Vaccine 2007, 25, 7372–7378. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  93. Karron, R.A.; Buchholz, U.J.; Collins, P.L. Live-attenuated respiratory syncytial virus vaccines. Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 2013, 372, 259–284. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  94. Soto, J.A.; Stephens, L.M.; Waldstein, K.A.; Canedo-Marroquín, G.; Varga, S.M.; Kalergis, A.M. Current insights in the development of efficacious vaccines against RSV. Front. Immunol. 2020, 11, 1507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  95. McFarland, E.J.; Karron, R.A.; Muresan, P.; Cunningham, C.K.; Valentine, M.E.; Perlowski, C.; Thumar, B.; Gnanashanmugam, D.; Siberry, G.K.; Schappell, E.; et al. International Maternal Pediatric Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trials (IMPAACT) 2000 study team. Live-Attenuated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine candidate with deletion of RNA synthesis regulatory protein M2-2 is highly immunogenic in children. J. Infect. Dis. 2018, 217, 1347–1355. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  96. Karron, R.A.; Luongo, C.; Thumar, B.; Loehr, K.M.; Englund, J.A.; Collins, P.L.; Buchholz, U.J. A Gene deletion that up-regulates viral gene expression yields an attenuated rsv vaccine with improved antibody responses in children. Sci. Transl. Med. 2015, 7, 312ra175. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  97. Cunningham, C.K.; Karron, R.; Muresan, P.; McFarland, E.J.; Perlowski, C.; Libous, J.; Thumar, B.; Gnanashanmugam, D.; Moye, J.; Schappell, E.; et al. International Maternal Pediatric Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trials (IMPAACT) 2012 study team. Live-attenuated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine with deletion of RNA synthesis regulatory protein M2-2 and cold passage mutations is overattenuated. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 2019, 6, ofz212. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  98. McFarland, E.J.; Karron, R.A.; Muresan, P.; Cunningham, C.K.; Libous, J.; Perlowski, C.; Thumar, B.; Gnanashanmugam, D.; Moye, J.; Schappell, E.; et al. Live respiratory syncytial virus attenuated by M2-2 deletion and stabilized temperature sensitivity mutation 1030s is a promising vaccine candidate in children. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, 221, 534–543. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  99. McFarland, E.J.; Karron, R.A.; Muresan, P.; Cunningham, C.K.; Perlowski, C.; Libous, J.; Oliva, J.; Jean-Philippe, P.; Moye, J.; Schappell, E.; et al. Live-attenuated respiratory syncytial virus vaccine with M2-2 deletion and with small hydrophobic noncoding region is highly immunogenic in children. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, 221, 2050–2059. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  100. Stobart, C.C.; Rostad, C.A.; Ke, Z.; Dillard, R.S.; Hampton, C.M.; Strauss, J.D.; Yi, H.; Hotard, A.L.; Meng, J.; Pickles, R.J.; et al. A live RSV vaccine with engineered thermostability is immunogenic in cotton rats despite high attenuation. Nat. Commun. 2016, 7, 13916. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  101. Malkin, E.; Yogev, R.; Abughali, N.; Sliman, J.; Wang, C.K.; Zuo, F.; Yang, C.-F.; Eickhoff, M.; Esser, M.T.; Tang, R.S.; et al. Safety and immunogenicity of a live attenuated RSV vaccine in healthy RSV-Seronegative children 5 to 24 months of age. PLoS ONE 2013, 8, e77104. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  102. Buchholz, U.J.; Cunningham, C.K.; Muresan, P.; Gnanashanmugam, D.; Sato, P.; Siberry, G.K.; Rexroad, V.; Valentine, M.; Perlowski, C.; Schappell, E.; et al. International Maternal Pediatric Adolescent AIDS Clinical Trials (IMPAACT) P1114 study team. Live Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) vaccine candidate containing stabilized temperature-sensitivity mutations is highly attenuated in RSV-Seronegative infants and children. J. Infect. Dis. 2018, 217, 1338–1346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  103. Bakre, A.; Wu, W.; Hiscox, J.; Spann, K.; Teng, M.N.; Tripp, R.A. Human respiratory syncytial virus non-structural protein NS1 modifies MiR-24 expression via transforming growth Factor-β. J. Gen. Virol. 2015, 96, 3179–3191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  104. Liesman, R.M.; Buchholz, U.J.; Luongo, C.L.; Yang, L.; Proia, A.D.; DeVincenzo, J.P.; Collins, P.L.; Pickles, R.J. RSV-Encoded NS2 promotes epithelial cell shedding and distal airway obstruction. J. Clin. Investig. 2014, 124, 2219–2233. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  105. Valarcher, J.-F.; Furze, J.; Wyld, S.; Cook, R.; Conzelmann, K.-K.; Taylor, G. Role of alpha/beta interferons in the attenuation and immunogenicity of recombinant bovine respiratory syncytial viruses lacking NS proteins. J. Virol. 2003, 77, 8426–8439. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  106. Whitehead, S.S.; Bukreyev, A.; Teng, M.N.; Firestone, C.-Y.; Claire, M.; Elkins, W.R.; Collins, P.L.; Murphy, B.R. Recombinant respiratory syncytial virus bearing a deletion of either the NS2 or SH gene is attenuated in chimpanzees. J. Virol. 1999, 73, 3438–3442. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  107. Karron, R.A.; Luongo, C.; Mateo, J.S.; Wanionek, K.; Collins, P.L.; Buchholz, U.J. Safety and immunogenicity of the respiratory syncytial virus vaccine RSV/ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L in RSV-seronegative children. J. Infect. Dis. 2020, 222, 82–91. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  108. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). Randomized Phase I/II Study of the Safety and Immunogenicity of a Single Dose of the Recombinant Live-Attenuated Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Vaccines RSV ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L, RSV 6120/ΔNS2/1030s, RSV 276 or Placebo, Delivered as Nose Drops to RSV-Seronegative Children 6 to 24 Months of Age; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03916185; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  109. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). Phase I Placebo-Controlled Study of the Infectivity, Safety and Immunogenicity of a Single Dose of a Recombinant Live-Attenuated Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccine, RSV 6120/∆NS2/1030s, Lot RSV#012A, Delivered as Nose Drops to RSV-Seropositive Children 12 to 59 Months of Age and RSV-Seronegative Infants and Children 6 to 24 Months of Age; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03387137; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  110. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). Randomized Phase I Study of the Infectivity, Safety, and Immunogenicity of a Single Dose of the Recombinant Live-Attenuated Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Vaccines RSV ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L or RSV 276 or Placebo, Delivered as Nose Drops to RSV-Seronegative Infants and Children 6 to 24 Months of Age; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03422237; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  111. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). Randomized Phase I Study of the Infectivity, Safety, and Immunogenicity of a Single Dose of the Recombinant Live-Attenuated Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) Vaccines RSV ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L or RSV 276 or Placebo, Delivered as Nose Drops to RSV-Seronegative Infants 6 to 24 Months of Age; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03227029; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  112. Céspedes, P.F.; Rey-Jurado, E.; Espinoza, J.A.; Rivera, C.A.; Canedo-Marroquín, G.; Bueno, S.M.; Kalergis, A.M. A single, low dose of a CGMP recombinant BCG vaccine elicits protective T cell immunity against the human respiratory syncytial virus infection and prevents lung pathology in mice. Vaccine 2017, 35, 757–766. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  113. A Study to Assess Safety, Tolerability and Immunogenicity of the Live Attenuated hRSV Vaccine rBCG-N-hRSV—Full Text View—ClinicalTrials.gov. Available online: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT03213405 (accessed on 3 October 2020).
  114. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). Phase I Placebo-Controlled Study of the Infectivity, Safety and Immunogenicity of a Single Dose of a Recombinant Live-Attenuated Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccine, RSV 6120/∆NS1, Lot RSV#018A, or RSV 6120/F1/G2/∆NS1, Lot RSV#016A, Delivered as Nose Drops to RSV-Seropositive Children 12 to 59 Months of Age and RSV-Seronegative Infants and Children 6 to 24 Months of Age; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03596801; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  115. National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID). A Phase I Study of the Safety and Immunogenicity of a Single Dose of the Live Recombinant RSV D46cpΔM2-2 Vero Grown Virus Vaccine (Lot RSV #008A), Delivered as Nose Drops to RSV-Seropositive Children 12 to 59 Months of Age and RSV-Seronegative Infants and Children 6 to 24 Months of Age; Clinical Trial Registration NCT02601612; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  116. Soto, J.A.; Gálvez, N.M.S.; Pacheco, G.A.; Bueno, S.M.; Kalergis, A.M. Antibody development for preventing the human respiratory syncytial virus pathology. Mol. Med. 2020, 26, 35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  117. Zhu, Q.; McLellan, J.S.; Kallewaard, N.L.; Ulbrandt, N.D.; Palaszynski, S.; Zhang, J.; Moldt, B.; Khan, A.; Svabek, C.; McAuliffe, J.M.; et al. A highly potent extended half-life antibody as a potential RSV vaccine surrogate for all infants. Sci. Transl. Med. 2017, 9, eaaj1928. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  118. Abarca, K.; Jung, E.; Fernández, P.; Zhao, L.; Harris, B.; Connor, E.M.; Losonsky, G.A. Safety, tolerability, pharmacokinetics, and immunogenicity of motavizumab, a humanized, enhanced-potency monoclonal antibody for the prevention of respiratory syncytial virus infection in at-risk children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2009, 28, 267–272. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  119. The Motavizumab Study Group; Fernández, P.; Trenholme, A.; Abarca, K.; Griffin, M.P.; Hultquist, M.; Harris, B.; Losonsky, G.A. A phase 2, randomized, double-blind safety and pharmacokinetic assessment of Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) prophylaxis with motavizumab and palivizumab administered in the same season. BMC Pediatr. 2010, 10, 38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  120. Feltes, T.F.; Sondheimer, H.M.; Tulloh, R.M.R.; Harris, B.S.; Jensen, K.M.; Losonsky, G.A.; Griffin, M.P. A randomized controlled trial of motavizumab versus palivizumab for the prophylaxis of serious respiratory syncytial virus disease in children with hemodynamically significant congenital heart disease. Pediatr. Res. 2011, 70, 186–191. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  121. Carbonell-Estrany, X.; Simoes, E.A.F.; Dagan, R.; Hall, C.B.; Harris, B.; Hultquist, M.; Connor, E.M.; Losonsky, G.A.; Motavizumab Study Group. Motavizumab for prophylaxis of respiratory syncytial virus in high-risk children: A noninferiority trial. PEDIATRICS 2010, 125, e35–e51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  122. Lagos, R.; DeVincenzo, J.P.; Muñoz, A.; Hultquist, M.; Suzich, J.; Connor, E.M.; Losonsky, G.A. Safety and antiviral activity of Motavizumab, a Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV)–specific humanized monoclonal antibody, when administered to RSV-infected children. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2009, 28, 835–837. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  123. Ramilo, O.; Lagos, R.; Sáez-Llorens, X.; Suzich, J.; Wang, C.K.; Jensen, K.M.; Harris, B.S.; Losonsky, G.A.; Griffin, M.P. Motavizumab treatment of infants hospitalized with respiratory syncytial virus infection does not decrease viral load or severity of illness. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2014, 33, 703–709. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  124. Regeneron Pharmaceuticals. A Phase 3, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study Evaluating the Efficacy and Safety of a Human Monoclonal Antibody, REGN2222, for the Prevention of Medically Attended RSV Infection in Preterm Infants; Clinical Trial Registration NCT02325791; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2018.
  125. Inc, R.P. Regeneron to Discontinue Development of Suptavumab for Respiratory Syncytial Virus. Available online: https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/regeneron-to-discontinue-development-of-suptavumab-for-respiratory-syncytial-virus-300503716.html (accessed on 3 October 2020).
  126. Griffin, M.P.; Khan, A.A.; Esser, M.T.; Jensen, K.; Takas, T.; Kankam, M.K.; Villafana, T.; Dubovsky, F. Safety, tolerability, and pharmacokinetics of MEDI8897, the respiratory syncytial virus prefusion F-targeting monoclonal antibody with an extended half-life, in healthy adults. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 2017, 61, e01714-16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed] [Green Version]
  127. Domachowske, J.B.; Khan, A.A.; Esser, M.T.; Jensen, K.; Takas, T.; Villafana, T.; Dubovsky, F.; Griffin, M.P. Safety, tolerability and pharmacokinetics of medi8897, an extended half-life single-dose respiratory syncytial virus prefusion f-targeting monoclonal antibody administered as a single dose to healthy preterm infants. Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 2018, 37, 886–892. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  128. MedImmune LLC. A Phase 3 Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Study to Evaluate the Safety and Efficacy of MEDI8897, a Monoclonal Antibody with an Extended Half-Life Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus, in Healthy Late Preterm and Term Infants (MELODY); Clinical Trial Registration NCT03979313; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  129. MedImmune LLC. A Phase 2/3 Randomized, Double-Blind, Palivizumab-Controlled Study to Evaluate the Safety of MEDI8897, a Monoclonal Antibody With an Extended Half-Life Against Respiratory Syncytial Virus, in High-Risk Children (MEDLEY); Clinical Trial Registration NCT03959488; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  130. Safety and Tolerability Study of RSV Prophylactic Drug for Immunocompromised Children—Full Text View—ClinicalTrials.gov. Available online: https://clinicaltrials.gov/ct2/show/NCT04484935 (accessed on 3 October 2020).
  131. Aliprantis, A.; Wolford, D.; Caro, L.; Maas, B.; Ma, H.; Vora, K.; Geng, D.; Railkar, R.; Lee, A.; Sterling, L.; et al. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to assess the safety and tolerability of a Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV) neutralizing monoclonal antibody (MK-1654) in healthy subjects. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 2018, 5 (Suppl. 1), S572. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  132. Maas, B.; Aliprantis, A.; Wolford, D.; Fayad, G.; Vora, K.; Geng, D.; Ma, H.; Caro, L. 1384. RSV Monoclonal Antibody (MK-1654) Phase 1 Pharmacokinetics (PK) in Healthy Adults and Population PK Modeling to Support Pediatric Development. Open Forum Infect. Dis. 2018, 5 (Suppl. 1), S424–S425. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [Green Version]
  133. Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. A Phase 2a Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Study to Evaluate the Efficacy and Safety of MK-1654 in Healthy Participants Inoculated With Experimental Respiratory Syncytial Virus; Clinical Trial Registration NCT04086472; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
  134. Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp. A Double-Blind, Randomized, Placebo-Controlled, Single Ascending Dose Study to Evaluate the Safety, Tolerability, and Pharmacokinetics of MK-1654 in Pre-Term and Full-Term Infants; Clinical Trial Registration NCT03524118; clinicaltrials.gov: Bethesda, MD, USA, 2020.
Table
Table 1. Summary of the RSV vaccines and monoclonal antibodies in clinical development by target population. Only the most advanced trial for a specific target group is reported. RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; mAb: monoclonal antibody.
Table 1. Summary of the RSV vaccines and monoclonal antibodies in clinical development by target population. Only the most advanced trial for a specific target group is reported. RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; mAb: monoclonal antibody.
Target PopulationVaccine NameSponsorVaccine TypeClinical Trial Phase
Pregnant womenResVaxNovavaxParticle-basedIII
RSV F DS-Cav1
VRC-RSVRGP084-00-VP		NIAIDSubunitI
RSV vaccinePfizerSubunitII
GSK3888550AGlaxoSmithKlineSubunitII
ChildrenRSV F nanoparticleNovavaxParticle-basedI
SynGEMMucosisParticle-basedII
Ad26.RSV.preFJanssenVector-basedI/IIa
ChAd155-RSVGlaxoSmithKlineVector-basedII
MEDI-534MedImmune (AstraZeneca)Vector-basedI
SeVRSVNIAIDVector-basedI
RSV MEDI ΔM2-2NIAIDLive-attenuatedI/II
RSV LID ΔM2-2NIAIDLive-attenuatedI
RSV cps2NIAIDLive-attenuatedI
RSV LID cp ΔM2-2NIAIDLive-attenuatedI
RSV LID ΔM2-2 1030sNIAIDLive-attenuatedI
RSV D46/NS2/N/ΔM2-2-HindIIINIAIDLive-attenuatedI
RSV ΔNS2 Δ1313 I1314LNIAIDLive-attenuatedI
RSV 6120/ΔNS1;
RSV 6120/F1/G2/ΔNS1		NIAIDLive-attenuatedI
RSV ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L;
RSV 6120/ΔNS2/1030s;
RSV 276		NIAIDLive-attenuatedI/II
RSV 6120/∆NS2/1030sNIAIDLive-attenuatedI
RSV ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L;
RSV 276		NIAIDLive-attenuatedI
RSV D46 cpΔM2-2NIAIDLive-attenuatedI
MEDI-559MedImmune (AstraZeneca)Live-attenuatedI/II
MV-012-968Meissa VaccinesLive-attenuatedI
rBCG-N-hRSVPontificia Universidad Catolica de ChileChimericI
MEDI-8897 (nirsevimab)MedImmune (AstraZeneca)mAbIII
MK-1654Merck Sharp and Dohme CorporationmAbIIa
ElderlyRSV F nanoparticleNovavaxParticle-basedIII
SynGEMMucosisParticle-basedII
MVA-BN RSVBavarian NordicVector-basedII
VXA-RSVf oralVaxartVector-basedI
Ad26.RSV.preFJanssenVector-basedII
PanAd3-RSV and MVA-RSVReiTheraVector-basedI
DPX-RSVDalhousie UniversitySubunitI
RSV vaccinePfizerSubunitII
GSK3844766AGlaxoSmithKlineSubunitI
Table
Table 2. Overview of the RSV particle-based vaccines under clinical development. Ab: antibody; ADA: anti-drug antibody; AE: adverse event; Ag: antigen; CI: confidence interval; CHD: congenital heart defect, CLD: chronic lung disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Corp: corporation; f.up: follow-up; GA: gestational age; IM: intramuscular; IN: intranasal; IV: intravenous; LRTD: lower respiratory tract disease; LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection; mAb: monoclonal antibody; NA: not available; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; PCA: palivizumab-competing antibody; PIV3: Parainfluenza Virus type 3; Ref: reference; RSV: respiratory Syncytial Virus; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE: serious adverse event; TCID50: Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50%; vs.: versus.
Table 2. Overview of the RSV particle-based vaccines under clinical development. Ab: antibody; ADA: anti-drug antibody; AE: adverse event; Ag: antigen; CI: confidence interval; CHD: congenital heart defect, CLD: chronic lung disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Corp: corporation; f.up: follow-up; GA: gestational age; IM: intramuscular; IN: intranasal; IV: intravenous; LRTD: lower respiratory tract disease; LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection; mAb: monoclonal antibody; NA: not available; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; PCA: palivizumab-competing antibody; PIV3: Parainfluenza Virus type 3; Ref: reference; RSV: respiratory Syncytial Virus; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE: serious adverse event; TCID50: Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50%; vs.: versus.
Vaccine Name, SponsorAntigen or Target SitePhase, Ref.Study PopulationRouteStudy IDEnrolment Time and CohortSummary of Published Results
ResVax, NovavaxRecombinant F protein exhibiting post-F morphology, with or without an aluminium phosphate adjuvantI [40]Women of childbearing ageIMNCT01290419December 2010–December 2011
(n = 150)
-
Well tolerated, no dose-related increases in SAEs;
-
Anti-RSV F IgG titres and PCA induced at levels that is reported to be associated with decreased risk of hospitalization
II [27]Women of childbearing ageIMNCT01704365October 2012–May 2013
(n = 330)
-
Well tolerated and immunogenic;
-
Most robust Ab response in 2-doses (60 or 90 µg) adjuvanted regimens;
-
Reduced RSV infection in recipients (11% vs. 21%, p = 0.04)
II [28]Women of childbearing ageIMNCT01960686October 2013–April 2014
(n = 720)
-
Well tolerated and immunogenic;
-
Most robust Ab response with 120 μg and 0.4 mg aluminium formulation;
-
RSV infection was reduced by 52% in vaccines (p = 0.009)
Recombinant F protein exhibiting post-F morphology, with an aluminium phosphate adjuvantII [31]Third-trimester pregnant womenIMNCT02247726September 2014–July 2016
(n = 50)
-
Well tolerated and immunogenic;
-
Transplacental antibody transfer was 90–120% across assays for infants of vaccinated women and it was higher in women with an interval of more than 30 days between vaccination and delivery
III [32]Pregnant women
(28–36 weeks of GA)		IMNCT02624947December 2015–June 2020
(n = 4636)		Vaccine efficacy:
-
39.4% in reducing RSV-specific medically significant LRTI in young infants (<3 months of age);
-
58.8% efficacy in reducing RSV-related severe hypoxemia in young infants;
-
44% efficacy in reducing RSV-LRTI hospitalization
RSV F nanoparticle, NovavaxRecombinant F protein exhibiting post-F morphology +/− an aluminium phosphate adjuvantI [29]ElderlyIMNCT01709019October 2012–March 2014
(n = 220)
-
Acceptable safety profile, no vaccine-related AEs;
-
Most robust immune response in adjuvanted formulations compared to high dose (90 μg vs. 60 μg RSV F protein)
Recombinant F protein exhibiting post-F morphology without an adjuvantII [41]ElderlyIMNCT02266628October 2014–March 2016
(n = 1599)
-
Results NA yet
II [42]ElderlyIMNCT02593071October 2015–November 2016
(n = 1330)
-
Results NA yet
III [34]ElderlyIMNCT02608502November 2015–December 2016
(n = 11850)		One dose of vaccine (135 µg RSV F protein) efficacy:
-
No efficacy vs. RSV-symptomatic respiratory diseases and RSV-positive moderate-severe LRTI;
-
61% reduction in hospitalizations due to COPD exacerbations
Recombinant F protein exhibiting post-F morphology, adjuvant: aluminium phosphate/Matrix MII [35]ElderlyIMNCT03026348January 2017–July 2018
(n = 1329)
-
Both adjuvants increased the magnitude, duration and quality of the immune response versus non-adjuvanted RSV F vaccine
Recombinant F protein exhibiting post-F morphology, with or without an aluminium phosphate adjuvantI [30]Children
(2–6 years old)		IMNCT02296463November 2014–April 2016
(n = 32)
-
Well tolerated;
-
Anti-F IgG and PCA titres increase day 14, peak day 28, elevated to day 56;
-
10-times increase PCA and anti-F IgG titres in adjuvanted group; 6-times increase in unadjuvanted group
SynGEM, MucosisPrefusion FI [37]Healthy adultsINNCT02958540 Unknown
(n = 48)
-
Well tolerated;
-
PCA titres achieved plateau after the first dose in high-dose (250 μg) recipients; after a boost at day 28 in low-dose (140 μg) recipients;
-
F protein site ∅-specific Ab were not detected
Table
Table 3. Overview of the RSV vector-based vaccines in clinical development. Ab: antibody; ADA: anti-drug antibody; AE: adverse event; Ag: antigen; CI: confidence interval; CHD: congenital heart defect, CLD: chronic lung disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Corp: corporation; f.up: follow-up; GA: gestational age; IM: intramuscular; IN: intranasal; IV: intravenous; LRTD: lower respiratory tract disease; LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection; mAb: monoclonal antibody; NA: not available; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; PCA: palivizumab-competing antibody; PIV3: Parainfluenza Virus type 3; Ref: reference; RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE: serious adverse event; TCID50: Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50%; vs.: versus.
Table 3. Overview of the RSV vector-based vaccines in clinical development. Ab: antibody; ADA: anti-drug antibody; AE: adverse event; Ag: antigen; CI: confidence interval; CHD: congenital heart defect, CLD: chronic lung disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Corp: corporation; f.up: follow-up; GA: gestational age; IM: intramuscular; IN: intranasal; IV: intravenous; LRTD: lower respiratory tract disease; LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection; mAb: monoclonal antibody; NA: not available; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; PCA: palivizumab-competing antibody; PIV3: Parainfluenza Virus type 3; Ref: reference; RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE: serious adverse event; TCID50: Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50%; vs.: versus.
Vaccine Name, SponsorAntigen or Target SitePhase, Ref.Study PopulationRouteStudy IDEnrolment Time and CohortSummary of Published Results
MVA-BN RSV, BavarianNordicF, G (A and B subtypes), N, M2I [45]Healthy adults and older adults (50–65 years)IMNCT02419391August 2015–May 2016
(n = 63)
-
Well tolerated and immunogenic;
-
Higher and broader cellular and humoral immune responses in the high dose group (1 × 108 TCID50) compared to low dose group (1 × 107 TCID50)
II [46]Older adults
(≥55 years)		IMNCT02873286September 2016–August 2018
(n = 420)
-
Well tolerated with no vaccine-related SAEs;
-
A single vaccination with the high dose (1 × 108 TCID50) induced a broad Ab (neutralizing Ab and total IgG and IgA titres) and Th1-biased cellular immune response against all 5 RSV antigens;
-
The immune response persisted at least 6 months and can be boosted at 12 months.
PanAd3-RSV and MVA-RSV, ReiTheraF, N and M2I [48,49]Healthy adults and older adults (60–75 years)IM (PadAd3 and MVA);
IN (PanAd3)		NCT01805921March 2013–August 2015
(n = 72: 42 healthy adults + 30 older adults)
-
Well tolerated and immunogenic;
-
RSV neutralising Ab titres increased after IM prime with PanAd3-RSV and after IM boost for vaccinees primed by the IN route;
-
Anti-F IgG and IgA Ab secreting cells increased after IM PanAd3-RSV prime and after IM MVA-RSV boost;
-
PanAd3-RSV prime/MVA-RSV boost induced robust RSV specific T-cell responses independent of the route of priming in adults;
-
RSV-specific T-cell immune responses was most marked in older adults following IM prime.
VXA-RSVf, VaxartF, dsDNA activating TLR3 receptorI [51]Healthy adultsORALNCT02830932June 2016–September 2017
(n = 66)
-
Results NA
Ad26.RSV.Pre-F, JanssenPrefusion FI [67]Healthy elderly
(≥60 years)		IMNCT02926430November 2016–January 2019
(n = 73)
-
Results NA
II [53]Healthy elderly
(≥60 years)		IMNCT03339713December 2017–July 2018
(n = 180)
-
The co-administration of Ad26.RSV.preF with a seasonal influenza vaccine was well tolerated and showed no evidence of interference in immune response
II [54]Healthy elderly
(≥65 years)		IMNCT03982199August 2019–In progress
(estimated n = 6672)
-
Results NA
I/IIa [56]Adults and
RSV-seropositive children
(12–24 months)		IMNCT03303625November 2017–April 2020
(n = 48)
-
Results NA
I/IIa [57]RSV-seronegative children
(12–24 months)		IMNCT03606512January 2019–In progress
(estimated n = 38)
-
Results NA
I [68]Healthy adults, older adultsIMNCT03795441January 2019–July 2019
(n = 24)
-
Results NA
II [69]Healthy adultsIMNCT03334695October 2016–November 2018 (n = 64)
-
Results NA
Ad26.RSV.Pre-F +/− prefusion F, JannsenPurified Prefusion FII [55]Healthy elderly
(≥60 years)		IMNCT03502707July 2018–In progress
(estimated n = 669)
-
Results NA
ChAd155-RSV, GlaxoSmithKlineF, N, M2-1I [58]RSV-seropositive adultsIMNCT02491463July 2015–February 2017
(n = 73)
-
Well tolerated and safe;
-
ChAD155-RSV induced specific humoral and cellular immune response
II [59]RSV-seropositive infants
(12–23 months)		IMNCT02927873January 2017–In progress
(estimated n = 82)
-
Results NA
I [60]Likely RSV-seronegative infants
(6–7 months)		IMNCT03636906April 2019–In progress
(estimated n = 201)
-
Results NA
MEDI-534, MedImmuneWild type FI [62]RSV/PIV3-seropositive children (1–9 years)INNCT00345670June 2006–May 2007
(n = 120)
-
Acceptable safety profile;
-
Minimally immunogenic
I [63]RSV/PIV3-seronegative children (6–24 months) and infants (2 months)INNCT00686075June 2008–August 2012
(n = 1338)
-
Published results on 49 healthy children (6–24 months);
-
Well tolerated and safe;
-
Seroresponse to RSV and PIV3 highest in high dose (1 × 106 TCID50) group
SeVRSV, NIAIDWild type FI [66]Healthy adultsINNCT03473002May 2018–February 2019
(n = 21)
-
Results NA
Table
Table 4. Overview of the RSV subunit vaccines in clinical development. Ab: antibody; ADA: anti-drug antibody; AE: adverse event; Ag: antigen; CI: confidence interval; CHD: congenital heart defect, CLD: chronic lung disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Corp: corporation; f.up: follow-up; GA: gestational age; IM: intramuscular; IN: intranasal; IV: intravenous; LRTD: lower respiratory tract disease; LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection; mAb: monoclonal antibody; NA: not available; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; PCA: palivizumab-competing antibody; PIV3: Parainfluenza Virus type 3; Ref: reference; RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE: serious adverse event; TCID50: Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50%; vs.: versus.
Table 4. Overview of the RSV subunit vaccines in clinical development. Ab: antibody; ADA: anti-drug antibody; AE: adverse event; Ag: antigen; CI: confidence interval; CHD: congenital heart defect, CLD: chronic lung disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Corp: corporation; f.up: follow-up; GA: gestational age; IM: intramuscular; IN: intranasal; IV: intravenous; LRTD: lower respiratory tract disease; LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection; mAb: monoclonal antibody; NA: not available; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; PCA: palivizumab-competing antibody; PIV3: Parainfluenza Virus type 3; Ref: reference; RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE: serious adverse event; TCID50: Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50%; vs.: versus.
Vaccine Name, SponsorAntigen or Target SitePhase, Ref.Study PopulationRouteStudy IDEnrolment Time and CohortSummary of Published Results
RSV F DS-Cav1,
NIAID		Prefusion
stabilised trimeric
F protein with or without alum adjuvant		I [75,76]Healthy adults
(18–50 years)		IMNCT03049488February 2017–January 2020
(n = 100)		Interim analysis after the first dose (50 or 150 mg, ± aluminium hydroxide—alum, n = 10 subjects per group):
-
After 4 weeks, neutralizing activity was respectively increased 7-, 12- and 15-fold increased after 50 mg and 150 mg of DS-Cav1 ± alum (all p < 0.001);
-
Neutralization remained 5- to 10-fold above baseline after 12 weeks (p < 0.001);
-
Well tolerated without any SAE reported
DPX-RSV,
Dalhousie University And ImmunoVaccine Technologies		Ectodomain of the small hydrophobic glycoprotein (SHe), presented with a novel lipid-based formulation (DepoVax)I [81,88]Healthy adults
(50–64 years)		IMNCT02472548May 2015–March 2017
(n = 40)		Two dose levels (10 or 25 μg) of SHe compared with the placebo, booster dose on day 56:
-
Highly immunogenic, sustained Ag-specific Ab responses up to 180 days after the second dose and up to 421 days in the higher-dose group;
-
Well tolerated;
RSV vaccine,
Pfizer		Prefusion F proteinII [79]AdultsIMNCT04071158October 2019–December 2019
(n = 713)
-
Results NA
II [80]Pregnant womenIMNCT04032093August 2019 –In progress
(estimated n = 650)
-
Results NA
II [78]Healthy elderlyIMNCT03572062June 2018–In progress
(estimated n = 317)
-
Results NA
II [77]AdultsIMNCT03529773April 2018–In progress
(estimated n = 1235)
-
Results NA
BARS13,
(Advanced Vaccine Laborat)		G proteinII [83]Healthy adultsIMACTRN12618000948291October 2018–October 2019
(n = 60)
-
Results NA
GSK3888550A,
GlaxoSmithKline		F proteinII [84]Women of childbearing ageIMNCT03674177October 2018–September 2019
(n = 502)
-
Results NA
II [85]Women of childbearing ageIMNCT04138056September 2019–August 2020
(n = 509)
-
Results NA
II [86]Pregnant womenIMNCT04126213November 2019–In progress
(estimated n = 410)
-
Results NA
GSK3844766A,
GlaxoSmithKline		F ProteinI [89]ElderlyIMNCT03814590January 2019–In progress
(estimated n = 1055)
-
Results NA
I [90]ElderlyIMNCT04090658September 2019–In progress
(estimated n = 40)
-
Results NA
Table
Table 5. Overview of the RSV live-attenuated or chimeric vaccines in clinical development. Ab: antibody; ADA: anti-drug antibody; AE: adverse event; Ag: antigen; CI: confidence interval; CHD: congenital heart defect, CLD: chronic lung disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Corp: corporation; f.up: follow-up; GA: gestational age; IM: intramuscular; IN: intranasal; IV: intravenous; LRTD: lower respiratory tract disease; LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection; mAb: monoclonal antibody; NA: not available; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; PCA: palivizumab-competing antibody; PFU: plaque-forming units; PIV3: Parainfluenza Virus type 3; Ref: reference; RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE: serious adverse event; TCID50: Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50%; vs.: versus.
Table 5. Overview of the RSV live-attenuated or chimeric vaccines in clinical development. Ab: antibody; ADA: anti-drug antibody; AE: adverse event; Ag: antigen; CI: confidence interval; CHD: congenital heart defect, CLD: chronic lung disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Corp: corporation; f.up: follow-up; GA: gestational age; IM: intramuscular; IN: intranasal; IV: intravenous; LRTD: lower respiratory tract disease; LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection; mAb: monoclonal antibody; NA: not available; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; PCA: palivizumab-competing antibody; PFU: plaque-forming units; PIV3: Parainfluenza Virus type 3; Ref: reference; RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE: serious adverse event; TCID50: Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50%; vs.: versus.
Vaccine Name, SponsorAntigen or Target SitePhase, Ref.Study PopulationRouteStudy IDEnrolment Time and CohortSummary of Published Results
RSV MEDI ΔM2-2,
NIAID
MedImmune
(AstraZeneca)		RSV MEDI ΔM2-2I [96]Children and AdultsINNCT01459198August 2011–August 2015
(n = 60)
-
Median peak virus titre: 1.5 log 10 PFU/mL;
-
Detected Abs in 95%
RSV cps2,
NIAID
MedImmune
(AstraZeneca)		RSV cps2I [102]RSV-seronegative children
(6–24 months)		INNCT01968083
NCT01852266		Oct 2013–April 2015
(n = 51 + 50)
-
Median peak virus titre: 2.9 log10 copies/mL;
-
Detected Abs in 59%
RSV LID ΔM2-2,
NIAID
Sanofi Pasteur		RSV LID ΔM2-2I [95]Children
(6–24 months)		INNCT02040831
NCT02237209		January 2014–December 2016
(n = 3 + 29)
-
Median peak virus titre: 3.8 log 10 PFU/mL;
-
Detected Abs in 90%
RSV LID ΔM2-2 1030s,
NIAID
Sanofi Pasteur		RSV LID ΔM2-2 1030sI [98]Children
(6–24 months)		INNCT02794870
NCT02952339		July 2015–July 2017
(n = 33 + 33)
-
Median peak virus titre: 3.1 log 10 PFU/mL;
-
detected Abs in 90%
RSV LID cp ΔM2-2,
NIAID		RSV LID cp ΔM2-2I [97]Children
(6–24 months)		INNCT02890381
NCT02948127		October 2015–April 2018
(n = 13 + 8)
-
Median peak virus titre: 4.5 log 10 PFU/mL;
-
detected Abs in 56%
RSV D46/NS2/N/ΔM2-2-HindIII,
NIAID		RSV D46/NS2/N/ΔM2-2-HindIIII [99]RSV-seronegative children
(6–24 months)		INNCT03102034
NCT03099291		April 2017–May 2018
(n = 6 + 32)
-
Mean peak: 6.1 log 10 copies/mL;
-
Detected Abs in 95%
RSV ΔNS2 Δ1313 I1314L,
NIAID		RSV ΔNS2 Δ1313 I1314LI [107]Children
-
RSV-seropositive
(12–59 months);
-
RSV-seronegative
(4–24 months)
INNCT01893554June 2013–October 2018
(n = 105)
-
Mean peak virus titre: 3–3.5 log 10 PFU/mL;
-
Detected Abs in 90%
RSV 6120/ΔNS1; RSV 6120/F1/G2/ΔNS1,
NIAID		RSV 6120/ΔNS1; RSV 6120/F1/G2/ΔNS1I [114]Children
-
RSV-seropositive
(12–59 months);
-
RSV-seronegative
(6–24 months)
INNCT03596801June 2018–In progress
(estimated n = 75)
-
Results NA
RSV ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L; RSV 6120/ΔNS2/1030s; RSV 276,
NIAID		RSV ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L; RSV 6120/ΔNS2/1030s; RSV 276I/II [108]RSV-seronegative children
(6–24 months)		INNCT03916185May 2019–In progress
(estimated n = 160)
-
Results NA
RSV 6120/∆NS2/1030s,
NIAID		RSV 6120/∆NS2/1030sI [109]Children
-
RSV-seropositive
(12–59 months);
-
RSV-seronegative
(6–24 months)
INNCT03387137October 2017–In progress
(estimated n = 45)
-
Results NA
RSV ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L; RSV 276,
NIAID		RSV ΔNS2/Δ1313/I1314L; RSV 276I [110]RSV-seronegative children
(6–24 months)		INNCT03422237October 2017–September 2020 (n = 80)
-
Results NA
RSV ΔNS2 Δ1313 I1314L,
NIAID		RSV ΔNS2 Δ1313 I1314LI [111]Children
(6–24 months)		INNCT03227029Aug 2017–September 2020 (n = 80)
-
Results NA
RSV D46 cpΔM2-2,
NIAID		RSV D46 cpΔM2-2I [115]Children
(6–60 months)		INNCT02601612October 2015–September 2019
(n = 45)
-
Results NA
MV-012-968,
Meissa Vaccines		MV-012-968I [100]AdultINNCT04227210January 2020–August 2020
(n = 20)
-
Results NA
MEDI-559,
MedImmune
(AstraZeneca)		MEDI-559I/II [101]RSV-seronegative children
(6–24 months)		INNCT00767416October 2008–December 2011
(n = 116)
rBCG-N-hRSV,
Pontificia Universidad Catolica de Chile		rBCG-N-hRSVI [112]AdultsINNCT03213405June 2017–May 2018
(n = 24)
-
Results NA
Table
Table 6. Overview of the anti-RSV monoclonal antibodies in clinical development. Ab: antibody; ADA: anti-drug antibody; AE: adverse event; Ag: antigen; CI: confidence interval; CHD: congenital heart defect, CLD: chronic lung disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Corp: corporation; f.up: follow-up; GA: gestational age; IM: intramuscular; IN: intranasal; IV: intravenous; LRTD: lower respiratory tract disease; LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection; mAb: monoclonal antibody; NA: not available; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; PCA: palivizumab-competing antibody; PIV3: Parainfluenza Virus type 3; Ref: reference; RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE: serious adverse event; TCID50: Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50%; vs.: versus.
Table 6. Overview of the anti-RSV monoclonal antibodies in clinical development. Ab: antibody; ADA: anti-drug antibody; AE: adverse event; Ag: antigen; CI: confidence interval; CHD: congenital heart defect, CLD: chronic lung disease; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; Corp: corporation; f.up: follow-up; GA: gestational age; IM: intramuscular; IN: intranasal; IV: intravenous; LRTD: lower respiratory tract disease; LRTI: lower respiratory tract infection; mAb: monoclonal antibody; NA: not available; NIAID: National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases; PCA: palivizumab-competing antibody; PIV3: Parainfluenza Virus type 3; Ref: reference; RSV: respiratory syncytial virus; RT-PCR: reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction; SAE: serious adverse event; TCID50: Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50%; vs.: versus.
Vaccine Name, SponsorAntigen or Target SitePhase, Ref.Study PopulationRouteStudy IDEnrolment Time and CohortSummary of Published Results
Nirsevimab,
(MEDI-8897),
MedImmune
(AstraZeneca)		Antibody
targeting site Ø of the F protein of RSV
(extended half-life obtained with YTE
mutation in Fc)		I [126]Healthy adultsIV or IMNCT02114268April 2014–June 2015
(n = 136)		Single dose of MEDI-8897 (n = 102) in 1 of 5 cohorts (300, 1000, 3000 mg iv or 100, 300 mg im) vs. placebo (n = 34), f.up for 360 days
-
Mean half-life 85–117 days;
-
similar ADA responses (mAb 13.7% vs. placebo 15.2%)
Ib/IIa [127]Healthy preterm infantsIMNCT02290340January 2015–September 2016
(n = 151)		Published results on 89 healthy preterm infants,
single dose of MEDI-8897 (n = 71) in 1 of 3 cohorts (10, 25, 50 mg im) vs. placebo (n = 18), follow-up for 360 days,
-
mean half-life 62.5–72.9 days;
-
different ADA responses (mAb 26.5% vs. placebo 0%)
IIb [19]Healthy preterm infantsIMNCT02878330November 2016–November 2017
(n = 1453)		Single dose of 50 mg im MEDI-8897 (n = 969) vs. placebo
(n = 484), follow-up for 360 days
-
significantly lower RSV-LRTI incidence for MEDI-8897 vs. placebo (relative difference 70.1% (95% CI 52.3–81.2), p < 0.001);
-
significantly lower RSV-LRTI hospitalization for MEDI-8897 vs. placebo (relative difference 78.4% (95% CI 51.9–90.3), p < 0.001)
III [128]Healthy late preterm and term infants
(born at or after 35 weeks GA, aged <1 year)		NA (IM?)NCT03979313July 2019–In progress
(estimated n = 3000)
-
Results NA
II/III [129]High-risk children
(preterm infants born ≤35 weeks GA without CLD/CHD, infants with CLD of prematurity, hemodynamically significant CHD)		NA (IM?)NCT03959488July 2019–In progress (estimated n = 1500)
-
Results NA
II [130]Immunocompromised Japanese children aged < 2 yearsIMNCT04484935Not recruiting yet
-
Results NA
MK-1654,
Merck Sharp and Dohme Corp.		Antibody
targeting site IV of the F protein of RSV with an
extended half-life		IIa [133]Healthy adultsIVNCT04086472October 2019–In progress
(n = 80)
-
Results NA
I/II [134]Healthy pre-term (born at 29–35 weeks GA) and full-term (born at >35 weeks GA) infantsIMNCT03524118September 2018–In progress (estimated n = 180)
-
Results NA
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Biagi, C.; Dondi, A.; Scarpini, S.; Rocca, A.; Vandini, S.; Poletti, G.; Lanari, M. Current State and Challenges in Developing Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines. Vaccines 2020, 8, 672. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8040672

AMA Style

Biagi C, Dondi A, Scarpini S, Rocca A, Vandini S, Poletti G, Lanari M. Current State and Challenges in Developing Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines. Vaccines. 2020; 8(4):672. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8040672

Chicago/Turabian Style

Biagi, Carlotta, Arianna Dondi, Sara Scarpini, Alessandro Rocca, Silvia Vandini, Giulia Poletti, and Marcello Lanari. 2020. "Current State and Challenges in Developing Respiratory Syncytial Virus Vaccines" Vaccines 8, no. 4: 672. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines8040672

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop