Self-Reported COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Willingness to Pay: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Thailand
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Design and Setting
2.2. Study Sample, Sampling, and Sample Size Calculation
2.3. Data Collection
2.4. Measure
2.4.1. Independent Variables
2.4.2. Dependent Variable—COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Its Determinants
2.4.3. Dependent Variable-WTP
2.5. Statistical Analysis
3. Results
3.1. COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Its Influencing Factors
3.2. Determinants of COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy
3.3. WTP and Influencing Factors for the COVID-19 Vaccine
3.4. Range of WTP for COVID-19 Vaccines
3.5. Reasons for Unwillingness to Pay for Vaccines
4. Discussion
4.1. Principal Findings and Previous Studies
4.2. Strengths and Limitations
4.3. Implications and Further Studies
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Questions | |
Complacency |
|
Convenience |
|
Confidence |
|
Demographic Data | Vaccine Non-Hesitancy n, (% Row) | Vaccine Hesitancy n, (%row) | ||
---|---|---|---|---|
Delayed | Denied | Total | ||
Overall (n = 585) | 524 (89.6) | 57 (9.7) | 4 (0.7) | 61 (10.4) |
Gender | ||||
Male (n = 184) | 172 (93.5) | 11 (6.0) | 1 (0.5) | 12 (6.5) |
Female (n = 399) | 351 (88.0) | 46 (11.5) | 2 (0.5) | 48 (12.0) |
Age group (years) | ||||
Median (min, max) | 39 (18, 79) | 25 (18, 45) | 45 (45, 45) | 25 (18, 45) |
18–24 (n = 160) | 136 (85.0) | 24 (15.0) | 0 (0.0) | 24 (15.0) |
25–44 (n = 181) | 166 (92.7) | 15 (8.3) | 0 (0.0) | 15 (8.3) |
45–64 (n = 177) | 161 (91.0) | 14 (7.9) | 2 (1.1) | 16 (9.0) |
≥65 (n = 27) | 27 (100) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) |
Marital status | ||||
Single (n = 388) | 352 (90.7) | 35 (9.0) | 1 (0.3) | 36 (9.3) |
Married (n = 210) | 192 (91.4) | 17 (8.1) | 1 (0.5) | 18 (8.6) |
Divorced (n = 15) | 13 (86.6) | 1 (6.7) | 1 (6.7) | 2 (13.4) |
Other (n = 20) | 18 (90.0) | 2 (10.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (10.0) |
Religion | ||||
Buddhism (n = 525) | 475 (90.5) | 49 (9.3) | 1 (0.2) | 50 (9.5) |
Islamic (n = 39) | 31 (79.5) | 6 (15.4) | 2 (5.1) | 8 (20.5) |
Christian (n = 9) | 9 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) |
Other (n = 8) | 6 (75.0) | 2 (25.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (25.0) |
Education | ||||
Less than elementary school (n = 9) | 7 (77.8) | 2 (22.2) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (22.2) |
Elementary school (n = 81) | 70 (86.5) | 10 (12.3) | 1 (1.2) | 11 (13.5) |
High school / Vocational certificate (n = 35) | 35 (100.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) |
Bachelor’s degree or above (n = 457) | 410 (89.8) | 45 (9.8) | 2 (0.4) | 47 (10.2) |
Healthcare worker | ||||
Yes (n = 220) | 197 (89.5) | 23 (10.5) | 0 (0.0) | 23 (10.5) |
No (n = 345) | 308 (89.2) | 34 (9.9) | 3 (0.9) | 37 (10.8) |
Residence | ||||
Rural (n = 74) | 63 (95.1) | 11 (4.9) | 0 (0.0) | 11 (4.9) |
Suburban (n = 175) | 162 (92.6) | 11 (6.3) | 2 (1.1) | 13 (7.4) |
Urban (n = 384) | 348 (90.6) | 35 (9.1) | 1 (0.3) | 36 (9.4) |
Monthly income (THB) | ||||
≤5000 (n = 81) | 67 (82.7) | 14 (17.3) | 0 (0.0) | 14 (17.3) |
5001–10,000 (n = 97) | 88 (90.7) | 9 (9.3) | 0 (0.0) | 9 (9.3) |
10,001–20,000 (n = 116) | 104 (89.3) | 12 (10.3) | 0 (0.0) | 12 (10.3) |
20,001–40,000 (n = 126) | 117 (92.9) | 7 (5.6) | 2 (1.6) | 9 (7.1) |
≥40,000 (n = 110) | 103 (93.6) | 6 (5.5) | 1 (0.9) | 7 (6.4) |
Demographic Data | Crude OR (95%CI) | Adjusted OR (95%CI) |
---|---|---|
Gender (ref. = male) | ||
Female | 1.05 * (1.002–1.11) | 1.11 * (1.01–1.23) |
Age group (years) (ref. = 18–24) | ||
25–44 | 0.92 * (0.88–0.97) | 0.89 * (0.86–0.93) |
45–64 | 1.02 (0.91–1.16) | 0.95 (0.83–1.12) |
≥65 | 0.96 (0.69–1.22) | 1.00 (0.97–1.03) |
Marital status (ref. = single) | ||
Other (married, divorced, widowed, etc.) | 0.82 (0.48–1.21) | 0.96 (0.87–1.05) |
Religion (ref. = Buddhism) | ||
Islamic | 0.94 (0.33–1.51) | 0.72 (0.26–1.76) |
Other | 1.11 (0.94–1.82) | 1.25 (0.67–1.75) |
Education (ref. = vocational certificate or below) | ||
Bachelor’s degree or above | 1.43 * (1.22–1.78) | 1.28 * (1.04–1.57) |
Healthcare (ref. = healthcare worker) | ||
Non-healthcare worker | 1.11 * (1.02–1.20) | 1.23 * (1.17–1.29) |
Residence (ref. = urban) | ||
Rural | 1.07 * (1.01–1.13) | 1.22 * (1.09–1.35) |
Suburban | 1.02 (0.98–1.07) | 1.01 (0.94–1.07) |
Monthly income (THB) (ref. = ≤5000) | ||
5001–10,000 | 1.03 (0.96–1.11) | 0.99 (0.92–1.08) |
10,001–20,000 | 0.88 (0.72–1.07) | 0.86 (0.67–1.01) |
20,001–40,000 | 1.17 * (1.01–1.33) | 1.15 * (1.10–1.21) |
≥40,000 | 0.99 (0.84–1.27) | 1.07 (0.97–1.34) |
Issue | Score from 1 to 5, Median (IQR) | p-Value | |
---|---|---|---|
Hesitancy (n = 61) | Non-Hesitancy (n = 524) | ||
Complacency | |||
Risk of COVID-19 infection | 3.8 (3.0, 4.0) | 3.9 (3.0, 5.0) | 0.460 |
Beneficence of vaccine | 4.2 (4.0, 5.0) | 4.5 (4.0, 5.0) | 0.009 |
Daily life impact | 3.3 (3.0, 4.0) | 3.7 (3.0, 5.0) | 0.001 |
Support for vaccination | 4.1 (4.0, 5.0) | 4.5 (4.0, 5.0) | <0.001 |
Convenience | |||
Vaccine accessibility | 3.3 (2.5, 4.0) | 3.4 (3.0, 4.0) | 0.324 |
Process comprehension | 4.1 (4.0, 4.5) | 4.1 (4.0, 5.0) | 0.285 |
Vaccine comprehension | 3.7 (3.0, 4.0) | 3.9 (3.0, 4.0) | 0.402 |
Confident | |||
Lack of concern regarding side effects | 2.7 (2.0, 3.0) | 3.2 (2.0, 4.0) | <0.001 |
Trust in effectiveness | 2.6 (2.0, 3.0) | 3.2 (2.8, 4.0) | <0.001 |
Trust in vaccine policies | 2.6 (1.0, 3.5) | 3.1 (2.0, 4.0) | <0.001 |
Vaccine necessity | 3.8 (3.0, 5.0) | 4.4 (4.0, 5.0) | <0.001 |
Demographic Data | Willingness to Pay n (%) | p-Value |
---|---|---|
Overall (n = 650) | 502 (77.2) | |
Gender | ||
Male (n = 206) | 156 (75.3) | 0.098 |
Female (n = 443) | 345 (78.9) | |
Marital status | ||
Single (n = 381) | 290 (76.1) | 0.039 |
Married (n = 232) | 183 (78.9) | |
Other (married, divorced, widowed, etc.) (n = 37) | 28 (75.7) | |
Age group (years) | ||
18–24 (n = 180) | 126 (70) | 0.036 |
25–44 (n = 215) | 176 (81.9) | |
45–64 (n = 188) | 151 (80.3) | |
≥65 (n = 29) | 21 (72.4) | |
Education | ||
Less than high school (n = 147) | 107 (72.8) | <0.001 |
Vocational certificate or above (n = 498) | 390 (78.3) | |
Monthly income (THB) | ||
≤5000 (n = 78) | 61 (78.2) | 0.015 |
5001–10,000 (n = 114) | 97 (85.1) | |
10,001–20,000 (n = 133) | 112 (84.2) | |
20,001–40,000 (n = 139) | 113 (81.3) | |
≥40,000 (n = 112) | 112 (92.6) | |
Impact of COVID-19 on income | ||
Yes (n = 380) | 279 (73.4%) | 0.002 |
No (n = 232) | 190 (81.9%) | |
Residence | ||
Urban (n = 425) | 321 (75.6) | 0.076 |
Suburban (n = 139) | 114 (82.0) | |
Rural (n = 85) | 66 (77.6) | |
Duration | ||
Before 1 November 2021 (n = 159) | 138 (86.8) | <0.001 |
Since 1 November 2021 (n = 491) | 364 (74.1) | |
Vaccine hesitancy | ||
Hesitancy (n = 61) | 51 (83.6%) | <0.001 |
Non-hesitancy (n = 461) | 395 (85.7%) |
Demographic Data | Crude OR (95%CI) | Adjusted OR (95%CI) |
---|---|---|
Gender (ref. = male) | ||
Female | 1.01 (0.53–1.91) | 1.02 (0.95–1.09) |
Marital status (ref. = single) | ||
Married | 2.19 (0.72–3.21) | 1.42 (0.82–2.49) |
Other (married, divorced, widowed, etc.) | 1.79 (0.92–2.17) | 1.31 (1.07–2.14) |
Age group (years) (ref. = 18–24) | ||
25–44 | 1.55 (0.83–2.42) | 1.44 (0.63–2.31) |
45–64 | 1.48 * (1.34–1.98) | 1.53 * (1.42–1.88) |
≥65 | 1.64 * (1.33–1.77) | 1.31 (0.91–1.79) |
Education (ref. = less than high school) | ||
Vocational certificate or above | 1.07 (0.89–1.98) | 1.05 (0.97–1.14) |
Monthly income (THB) (ref. = ≤5,000) | ||
5001–10,000 | 0.94 (0.82–1.02) | 0.87 (0.80–1.01) |
10,001–20,000 | 1.29 * (1.11–1.89) | 1.05 * (1.02–1.07) |
20,001–40,000 | 1.03 (0.99–1.24) | 1.08 (0.94–1.53) |
≥40,000 | 1.88 * (1.67–2.13) | 1.67 * (1.44–1.93) |
Impact of COVID-19 on income (ref. = yes) | ||
No | 1.66 * (1.34–2.05) | 1.31 * (1.06–1.68) |
Residence (ref. = urban) | ||
Suburban | 0.89 (0.74–1.22) | 1.02 (0.98–1.10) |
Rural | 1.01 (0.79–1.04) | 1.07 (0.82–1.19) |
Duration (ref. = before 1 November 2021) | ||
Since 1 November 2021 | 0.77 * (0.52–0.91) | 0.90 * (0.84–0.97) |
Vaccine hesitancy (ref. = non-hesitancy) | ||
Hesitancy | 1.15 * (1.11–1.22) | 1.01 (0.99–1.04) |
Factor | Range of Willingness to Pay in THB, Row% | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
125–250 | 251–500 | 501–1000 | 1001–2000 | 2001–4000 | 4001–8000 | >8000 | |
Overall (n = 502) | 11.6 | 19.9 | 27.3 | 23.9 | 13.7 | 1.8 | 1.8 |
Gender | |||||||
Male (n = 156) | 10.9 | 14.1 | 28.8 | 27.6 | 12.2 | 2.6 | 1.9 |
Female (n = 345) | 11.6 | 22.6 | 26.7 | 22.3 | 14.5 | 1.4 | 0.0 |
Marital status | |||||||
Single (n = 290) | 9.7 | 17.9 | 24.8 | 26.6 | 15.9 | 2.8 | 2.4 |
Married (n = 183) | 14.2 | 24.6 | 30.1 | 20.8 | 10.4 | 0.5 | 0.5 |
Other (divorced, widowed, etc.) (n = 28) | 10.7 | 17.9 | 35.7 | 17.9 | 14.3 | 0.0 | 3.6 |
Age group (years) | |||||||
18–24 (n = 126) | 13.5 | 12.7 | 27.8 | 24.6 | 16.7 | 2.4 | 2.4 |
25–44 (n = 176) | 6.3 | 21.0 | 23.3 | 30.1 | 15.3 | 1.7 | 2.3 |
45–64 (n = 128) | 13.3 | 27.3 | 28.1 | 20.3 | 8.6 | 0.8 | 1.6 |
≥65 (n = 43) | 18.6 | 20.9 | 39.5 | 14.0 | 7.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
Education | |||||||
Less than high school (n = 107) | 22.4 | 22.4 | 22.4 | 15.9 | 13.1 | 4.7 | 0.0 |
Vocational certificate or above (n = 390) | 8.5 | 19.5 | 28.5 | 26.4 | 14.1 | 0.8 | 2.3 |
Monthly income (THB) | |||||||
≤5000 (n = 61) | 59.0 | 8.2 | 4.9 | 21.3 | 6.6 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
5001–10,000 (n = 97) | 25.8 | 13.4 | 44.3 | 7.2 | 3.1 | 0.0 | 0.0 |
10,001–20,000 (n = 122) | 9.0 | 23.0 | 27.0 | 22.1 | 13.1 | 4.1 | 1.6 |
20,001–40,000 (n = 113) | 7.1 | 21.2 | 31.9 | 24.8 | 11.5 | 1.8 | 1.8 |
≥40,000 (n = 112) | 6.3 | 15.2 | 30.4 | 25.0 | 17.0 | 3.6 | 2.7 |
Impact of COVID-19 on income | |||||||
Yes (n = 279) | 15.1 | 22.6 | 28.0 | 20.8 | 11.8 | 1.4 | 0.4 |
No (n = 190) | 11.1 | 18.4 | 28.9 | 28.4 | 13.7 | 1.6 | 2.6 |
Residence | |||||||
Urban (n = 321) | 9.7 | 19.3 | 28.0 | 24.3 | 14.6 | 1.6 | 2.5 |
Suburban (n = 114) | 13.2 | 20.2 | 31.6 | 23.7 | 10.5 | 0.0 | 0.9 |
Rural (n = 66) | 16.7 | 22.7 | 16.7 | 22.7 | 15.2 | 6.1 | 0.0 |
Duration | |||||||
Before 1 November 2021 (n = 138) | 7.2 | 8.7 | 25.4 | 27.5 | 23.2 | 2.9 | 5.1 |
Since 1 November 2021 (n = 364) | 13.2 | 24.2 | 28.0 | 22.5 | 10.2 | 1.4 | 0.5 |
Vaccine hesitancy | |||||||
Hesitancy (n = 51) | 19.6 | 15.7 | 15.7 | 25.5 | 19.6 | 2.0 | 2.0 |
Non-hesitancy (n = 395) | 10.9 | 21.5 | 26.8 | 23.0 | 14.7 | 1.5 | 1.5 |
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Mueangpoon, K.; Inchan, C.; Kaewmuneechoke, P.; Rattana, P.; Budsratid, S.; Japakiya, S.; Ngamchaliew, P.; Vichitkunakorn, P. Self-Reported COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Willingness to Pay: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Thailand. Vaccines 2022, 10, 627. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10040627
Mueangpoon K, Inchan C, Kaewmuneechoke P, Rattana P, Budsratid S, Japakiya S, Ngamchaliew P, Vichitkunakorn P. Self-Reported COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Willingness to Pay: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Thailand. Vaccines. 2022; 10(4):627. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10040627
Chicago/Turabian StyleMueangpoon, Kulpatsorn, Chapipak Inchan, Panithan Kaewmuneechoke, Peerunda Rattana, Supanut Budsratid, Suthasinee Japakiya, Pitchayanont Ngamchaliew, and Polathep Vichitkunakorn. 2022. "Self-Reported COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Willingness to Pay: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Thailand" Vaccines 10, no. 4: 627. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10040627
APA StyleMueangpoon, K., Inchan, C., Kaewmuneechoke, P., Rattana, P., Budsratid, S., Japakiya, S., Ngamchaliew, P., & Vichitkunakorn, P. (2022). Self-Reported COVID-19 Vaccine Hesitancy and Willingness to Pay: A Cross-Sectional Survey in Thailand. Vaccines, 10(4), 627. https://doi.org/10.3390/vaccines10040627