Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Induced by Waterpipe Tobacco Smoking Despite Possible Protective Effects of Exercise Training: A Review of the Literature
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. An Overview of Waterpipes
3. Toxicants Released from Waterpipe Smoking
4. Waterpipe Smoking, Oxidative Stress and Inflammation
5. Impact of Exercise Training on Oxidative Stress and Inflammatory Markers in Waterpipe Smokers
5.1. Acute Responses after Exercise
5.2. Effects of Regular Exercise Training
6. Waterpipe Effects on Exercise Capacity and Lung Functions
7. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Toxicant | WTS | Cigarette | Approximate Fold Difference (X) |
---|---|---|---|
Volatile Aldehydes, µg [36,37,38,39] | |||
Formaldehyde | 58.7 to 630 | 20.6 to 100 | 3 to 6 |
Acetaldehyde | 383 to 2520 | 587.4 | 0.7 to 4 |
Propionaldehyde | 51.7 to 403 | 49 | 1 to 8 |
Acrolein | 892 | 60 to 240 | 4 to 15 |
Acetone | 118 | 270.4 | 0.5 |
Volatile Organic Compounds, µg [40,41] | |||
Toluene | 9.92 | 64.9 | 0.15 |
Benzene | 271 | 43.4 | 6 |
Isoprene | 4 | 298 | <0.1 |
Heavy Metals, ng [42,43] | |||
Lead | 6870 | 34 to 85 | 81 to 202 |
Chromium | 1340 | 4 to 70 | 19 to 335 |
Nickel | 990 | 600 | 1.5 |
Arsenic | 165 | 40 to 120 | 1.5 to 4 |
Cobalt | 70 | 0.13 to 0.2 | 350 to 538 |
Beryllium | 65 | 300 | 0.2 |
Carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon, ng [36,44] | |||
Chrysene | 106 | 16.2 | 6.5 |
Benz(a)anthracene | 86.4 | 14.1 | 6 |
Benzo(b + k)fluoranthenes | 64.7 | 7.6 | 8.5 |
Benzo(a)pyrene | 51.8 | 6.6 | 8 |
Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene | 47.3 | 3.8 | 12.5 |
Others [36,37,45,46,47] | |||
Nicotine, mg | 1.04 to 4.82 | 0.73 to 2.39 | 1.5 to 2 |
Carbon monoxide, mg | 150 to 155 | 12 to 22.5 | 7 to 12.5 |
Tar, mg | 464 to 640 | 9.4 to 29 | 22 to 49 |
Particulate matter, mg | 770 to 1193 | 11 | 70 to 108 |
Nitric oxide, µg | 437 | 218.1 | 2 |
The Authors | Subjects | Purpose | Exercise Protocol | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
Arazi et al. [12] | Sedentary women (11 waterpipe smokers, 12 non-smokers) | Comparing the salivary antioxidative responses following a bout of exhaustive aerobic exercise | Start at 1.7 mph and a gradient of 10% for the first 3 min, the gradient increased by 2% every 3 min, and the speed was 2.5, 3.4, 4.2, 5, 5.5, and 6 mph in the subsequent stages (Bruce treadmill test) | Smaller increase in POX activity, larger decline in DPPH activity, and lower salivary flow rate for smokers ↔ UA |
Ahmadian et al. [58] | Sedentary men (10 waterpipe smokers, 10 non-smokers) | The influence of WTS on cognitive function and hematological parameters following an acute supramaximal exercise | 30 s Wingate supramaximal exercise test using a cycle ergometer | Greater increases in white blood cell, neutrophil, hematocrit and lymphocyte values for smokers ↔ PLT, PDW, MPV |
Nakhaee et al. [8] | Wistar male rats | The effects of waterpipe exposure with/without swimming exercise on heart histology and inflammation status | 5 days/week for 4 weeks, 1 h/day, moderate intensity | ↔ MDA, GPX, SOD, IL-10, IL-1β, and IL-6 ↓ TNF-α ↑ Catalase |
Alzoubi et al. [59] | Wistar male rats | The neuroprotective effects of swimming exercise on hippocampus oxidative markers induced by exposure to waterpipe | 5 days/week for 4 weeks, 1 h/day, moderate intensity | ↑ GPX, Catalase, and GSH/GSSG ↓ GSSG ↔ TBARs, GSH |
Nemmar et al. [60] | C57BL/6 mice | The impact of regular exercise training on lung inflammation and impairment of pulmonary function induced by exposure to waterpipe | Treadmill running, 5 days/week for 8 weeks, 40 min/day, moderate intensity | ↓ TNF-α, IL-6, NF-κB, 8-isoprostane, intra-alveolar macrophages, airway resistance, lung DNA damage, and focal damage to alveolar septae ↑ Nrf2 |
Koubaa et al. [61] | Sedentary men (12 waterpipe smokers, 11 cigarette smokers, and 12 non-smokers) | The impact of interval training program on the antioxidant defense capability and lipid profile | Race track running, 3 days/week for 12 weeks, 30 min/day, 2-min intervals interspersed with recovery periods of 1 min, moderate-intensity (70% of VO2max) | ↑ TAS, SOD, GPx, GR, α-tocopherol, and HDL-C ↓ MDA, and TC/HDL-C ↔ LDL-C, TC, TG, HDL-C/TG |
Koubaa et al. [62] | Sedentary men (14 waterpipe smokers, 15 cigarette smokers, and 14 non-smokers) | The effect of continuous training program on antioxidant defense capability and lipid profile | Race track running, 3 days/week for 12 weeks, 20–30 min/day, low-intensity (40% of VO2max) | ↑ TAS, SOD, GPx, GR, α-tocopherol, and HDL-C ↓ MDA, LDL-C, TC, and TC/HDL-C ↔ MDA, GR, α-tocopherol, TG, HDL-C/TG |
The Authors | Subjects | Purpose | Exercise Protocol | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|---|
Hawari et al. [70] | 24 healthy men | The acute effects of WTS on exercise capacity and lung function | Cardiopulmonary exercise test using a cycle ergometer: 2-min 20-Watt warm up and 25-Watt increase every 2-min for a maximum time of 10 min | ↓ VO2, O2 pulse, FEF25–75% ↑ HR/VO2, baseline respiratory rate, RPE at mid and peak exercise ↔ FEV1, FVC, DLco, breathing reserve |
Koubaa et al. [71] | 68 sedentary men (22 waterpipe smokers, 23 cigarette smokers, 23 non-smokers) | Evaluate and compare the effect of smoking on antioxidant status, aerobic capacity, pulmonary function and lipid profile in waterpipe and cigarette smokers | Cardiopulmonary exercise test using a cycle ergometer: 5-min warm up with 6 km/h, 1 km/h increase every 2 min | ↓ VO2max, MAS, FVC, FEV1, PEF, FEF25–75%, FEF50% ↔ FEV1/FVC |
Koubaa et al. [72] | 43 sedentary men (14 waterpipe smokers, 15 cigarette smokers, 14 non-smokers) | The effects of continuous training on lungs function and cardiorespiratory fitness in smokers | Race track running, 3 days/week for 12 weeks, 20–30 min/day, low-intensity (40% of VO2max) | ↑ FVC, FEV1, FEF50%, VO2max, vVO2max ↔ PEF, FEV1/FVC, FEF25–75% |
Koubaa et al. [74] | 35 sedentary men (10 waterpipe smokers, 12 cigarette smokers, 11 non-smokers) | The effects of aerobic interval training program on aerobic capacity and pulmonary function in smokers | Race track running, 3 days/week for 12 weeks, 30 min/day, 2-min intervals interspersed with recovery periods of 1 min, moderate-intensity (70% of VO2max) | ↑ VO2max, vVO2max, PEF |
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Taati, B.; Arazi, H.; Suzuki, K. Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Induced by Waterpipe Tobacco Smoking Despite Possible Protective Effects of Exercise Training: A Review of the Literature. Antioxidants 2020, 9, 777. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9090777
Taati B, Arazi H, Suzuki K. Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Induced by Waterpipe Tobacco Smoking Despite Possible Protective Effects of Exercise Training: A Review of the Literature. Antioxidants. 2020; 9(9):777. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9090777
Chicago/Turabian StyleTaati, Behzad, Hamid Arazi, and Katsuhiko Suzuki. 2020. "Oxidative Stress and Inflammation Induced by Waterpipe Tobacco Smoking Despite Possible Protective Effects of Exercise Training: A Review of the Literature" Antioxidants 9, no. 9: 777. https://doi.org/10.3390/antiox9090777