Balance Expertise Is Associated with Superior Spatial Perspective-Taking Skills
Abstract
:1. Introduction
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Participants
2.2. Assessments
2.2.1. Balance Test
2.2.2. Perspective-Taking Abilities
2.2.3. Executive Functions
2.2.4. Physical Activity Questionnaire
2.2.5. Verbal Intelligence Test
2.3. Data Analysis
3. Results
3.1. Description of Participant Groups
3.2. Balance Performance
3.3. Perspective-Taking Abilities
3.4. Executive Functions
3.5. Regression Analyses
4. Discussion
5. Conclusions
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Acknowledgments
Conflicts of Interest
Appendix A. Regression Analyses: Subsample Considered for Group Analyses
Variable | B | 95% CI for B | SE B | β | R2 | ∆R2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | ||||||
Step 1 | 0.081 | 0.081 * | |||||
Constant | 31.14 | 17.57 | 44.70 | 6.85 | |||
Age | 0.092 | −0.39 | 0.58 | 0.25 | 0.03 | ||
Gender | −3.61 | −10.19 | 2.97 | 3.33 | −0.10 | ||
hours sports/week | −0.88 | −1.28 | −0.15 | 0.32 | −0.25 ** | ||
Step 2 | 0.170 | 0.089 ** | |||||
Constant | 55.18 | 36.91 | 73.46 | 9.24 | |||
Age | −0.24 | −0.74 | 0.26 | 0.25 | −0.08 | ||
Gender | −7.28 | −13.86 | −0.70 | 3.33 | −0.19 * | ||
Hours sports/week | −0.59 | −1.21 | 0.02 | 0.31 | −0.17 | ||
Stability platform eyes open | −1.66 | −2.55 | −0.77 | 0.45 | −0.34 *** |
Variable | B | 95% CI for B | SE B | β | R2 | ∆R2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | ||||||
Step 1 | 0.046 | 0.046 | |||||
Constant | 47.17 | 29.89 | 64.45 | 8.73 | |||
Age | 0.11 | −0.49 | 0.72 | 0.31 | 0.03 | ||
Gender | 5.81 | −2.91 | 14.54 | 4.41 | 0.12 | ||
Hours sports/week | 0.68 | −0.16 | 1.53 | 0.42 | 0.14 | ||
Step 2 | 0.047 | 0.001 | |||||
Constant | 49.67 | 25.42 | 73.91 | 12.25 | |||
Age | 0.08 | −0.56 | 0.72 | 0.32 | 0.02 | ||
Gender | 5.40 | −3.81 | 14.60 | 4.65 | 0.11 | ||
Hours sports/week | 0.72 | −0.16 | 1.60 | 0.44 | 0.15 | ||
Stability platform eyes open | −0.18 | −1.41 | 1.05 | 0.62 | −0.03 |
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Balance Experts n = 40 | Endurance Athletes n = 38 | Sedentary Participants n = 59 | p | |
---|---|---|---|---|
Age | 27.95 (8.39) | 29.71 (7.07) | 26.63 (5.33) | 0.098 3 |
Gender (female/male) | 25/15 | 17/21 | 43/16 | 0.020 4 |
Verbal IQ 1 | 29.06 (4.15) | 29.11 (3.34) | 27.13 (4.23) | 0.029 3 |
Self-reported sports activities 2 (hours/week) | 9.06 (4.50) | 8.58 (3.61) | 0.52 (1.04) | <0.001 3 |
Self-reported sports activities 2 (MET) | 45.28 (27.84) | 67.96 (30.19) | 2.48 (4.73) | <0.001 3 |
Self-reported basic and leisure time activities 2 (hours/week) | 8.38 (6.96) | 8.72 (5.14) | 6.44 (4.59) | 0.087 3 |
Self-reported basic and leisure time activities 2 (MET) | 30.62 (25.11) | 34.13 (19.78) | 21.91 (15.25) | 0.008 3 |
Variable | B | 95% CI for B | SE B | β | R2 | ∆R2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | ||||||
Step 1 | 0.078 | 0.078 ** | |||||
Constant | 32.53 | 20.07 | 45.00 | 6.31 | |||
Age | 0.057 | −0.38 | 0.50 | 0.22 | 0.02 | ||
Gender | −5.56 | −11.66 | 0.55 | 3.09 | −0.15 | ||
Hours sports/week | −0.72 | −1.28 | −0.16 | 0.28 | −0.21* | ||
Step 2 | 0.151 | 0.073 ** | |||||
Constant | 53.64 | 36.84 | 70.44 | 8.50 | |||
Age | −0.20 | −0.64 | 0.24 | 0.22 | −0.07 | ||
Gender | −9.00 | −15.17 | −2.81 | 3.13 | −0.24 ** | ||
Hours sports/week | −0.49 | −1.04 | 0.06 | 0.28 | −0.14 | ||
Stability platform eyes open | −1.53 | −2.39 | −0.68 | 0.43 | −0.30 ** |
Variable | B | 95% CI for B | SE B | β | R2 | ∆R2 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | ||||||
Step 1 | 0.035 | 0.035 | |||||
Constant | 44.91 | 28.65 | 61.18 | 8.23 | |||
Age | 0.22 | −0.33 | 0.78 | 0.28 | 0.07 | ||
Gender | 5.39 | −2.82 | 13.60 | 4.15 | 0.11 | ||
Hours sports/week | 0.52 | −0.24 | 1.28 | 0.39 | 0.11 | ||
Step 2 | 0.036 | 0.001 | |||||
Constant | 47.35 | 24.68 | 70.02 | 11.47 | |||
Age | 0.20 | −0.39 | 0.78 | 0.30 | 0.06 | ||
Gender | 4.97 | −3.70 | 13.64 | 4.39 | 0.10 | ||
Hours sports/week | 0.55 | −0.24 | 1.34 | 0.40 | 0.12 | ||
Stability platform eyes open | −0.18 | −1.37 | 1.00 | 0.60 | −0.03 |
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Hötting, K.; Rogge, A.-K.; Kuhne, L.A.; Röder, B. Balance Expertise Is Associated with Superior Spatial Perspective-Taking Skills. Brain Sci. 2021, 11, 1401. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111401
Hötting K, Rogge A-K, Kuhne LA, Röder B. Balance Expertise Is Associated with Superior Spatial Perspective-Taking Skills. Brain Sciences. 2021; 11(11):1401. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111401
Chicago/Turabian StyleHötting, Kirsten, Ann-Kathrin Rogge, Laura A. Kuhne, and Brigitte Röder. 2021. "Balance Expertise Is Associated with Superior Spatial Perspective-Taking Skills" Brain Sciences 11, no. 11: 1401. https://doi.org/10.3390/brainsci11111401