Next Article in Journal
Polyamine Content of Enteral Nutrition Formulas: Effect of Daily Intake on the Feeding Tolerance of Patients During the First Week in the Intensive Care Unit
Previous Article in Journal
Digital Image Correlation and Reliability-Based Methods for the Design of Structural Beams Made from Recycled Concrete Using Aggregates from Precast Rejects
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 15
Issue 2
10.3390/app15020657
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

The Deep Structure of the Kimberlite Pipe Volchya in the Arkhangelsk Diamond Province and Controlling Faults Based on Passive Seismic and Radiological Methods (Northwest Russia)

by
Konstantin Danilov
,
Evgeny Yakovlev
,
Andrey Puchkov
*,
Vladimir Bykov
and
Alexander Katorin
N. Laverov Federal Center for Integrated Arctic Research of the Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 109 Severnoj Dviny Emb., Arkhangelsk 163000, Russia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(2), 657; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020657
Submission received: 22 October 2024 / Revised: 8 January 2025 / Accepted: 8 January 2025 / Published: 11 January 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Ecology Science and Engineering)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The successful prospecting of kimberlite pipes is dependent upon a comprehensive understanding of the deep structures of the pipes and the host geological formation. This is a challenging task, given the complex nature of diamond deposits, the small size of pipes in the plan, the absence of stable features in potential fields, etc. As a consequence, the allocation of control structures is practically not used in exploration work. In this regard, the Arkhangelsk diamond province (NW Russia) is distinguished by the considerable overburden thickness, which presents a significant challenge for the application of geophysical methods. It is thus imperative to devise novel methodologies for conducting investigations. In order to achieve this, a set of methods was employed, including microseismic sounding, passive seismic interferometry, and radon emanation mapping. This set of methods has previously been tested only on a few pipes and has not previously been employed in the Griba deposit. The Volchya pipe was selected as the test object due to its proximity to the Griba pipe. The findings revealed that the pipe displayed a more complex configuration than was previously postulated. The controlling faults were found to be oriented in a southwesterly to northwesterly direction and to exhibit a contrasting narrow vertical structure at depths greater than 400 m. Further identification of control structures by the proposed set of methods can increase the efficiency of diamond prospecting.

1. Introduction

The Arkhangelsk Diamondiferous Province (ADP) in the Arctic zone of Russia is the sole diamondiferous region in Europe with commercial diamond reserves [1,2,3]. Moreover, ADP is a relatively young formation with underinvestigated circumstances of its genesis [4]. These facts highlight the necessity for further investigation of the deep structure of the region.
At present, in excess of 50 alkaline-ultrabasic rock blast pipes have been identified across the province, with a concentration within a few fields. Most of the pipes were discovered in the 1980s. The last significant discovery was the V. Griba deposit in 1996. At the same time, the geological characteristics of the region indicate the potential for discovering new diamond deposits [5]. Given that the majority of ADP falls within the category of closed prospecting areas [6], magnetic prospecting has historically constituted the primary and dominant geophysical method. Nevertheless, the reservoir of promising high-amplitude local magnetic anomalies for confirmation by drilling is now depleted [7]. The work is carried out with the existing prospective areas at the level of accuracy of an aeromagnetic survey [3]. The application of schlicho-mineralogical methods for prospecting also yielded unsatisfactory results, as kimberlites in the Arkhangelsk diamondiferous province exhibit a relatively low concentration of indicator minerals, particularly pyrope [8,9,10]. In this regard, there is an urgent need to introduce new geophysical research methods, integrated interpretation of geological and geophysical information, modernization and optimization of existing prospecting techniques, and an increase in the volume of geological exploration work [5,6]. A number of researchers have identified non-traditional methods of searching for hidden ore-bearing and ore-controlling structures as the most promising avenues for exploration [3,6,11,12,13]. The identification and study of such structures by traditional geophysical methods often yield inconclusive results due to the closed nature of the territory and the weak manifestation of ore-controlling faults in the physical fields [14]. One promising avenue for locating kimberlite deposits is the method of microseismic sounding (MSM) in conjunction with radiogeochemical techniques. One such technique is the study of the 222Rn field distribution over explosion pipes [15].
The principal benefit of MSM is its high horizontal resolution. This characteristic has been demonstrated in a number of field experiments and through mathematical modeling [16,17]. Therefore, MSM is able to accurately delineate the depth structure of a range of subvertical features, including faults, kimberlite pipes, and volcanoes [15,17,18,19,20]. Within the ADP, the method was first tested on the Lomonosov pipe [21]. The pipe was identified as a cone-shaped body facing downwards with a contrast lower than the contrast of the faults. Further studies confirmed the results obtained. The structure of the pipes to depths of 1–2 km was determined based on the data obtained. At the same time, it was shown that pipes in different kimberlite fields can manifest themselves with different characteristics: both high-velocity and low-velocity [22,23].
In terms of radiogeochemistry, kimberlite pipes create zones of radioactive elements and radon on the Earth’s surface [24]. Given the significant degree of overlap between the layers in question, the only viable method for registering these anomalies is through ground survey, utilizing equipment with an exceptionally high level of sensitivity. Concurrently, a gamma-spectrometric survey enables the delineation of these zones with greater expediency. The advancement of fracturing within the peritubular space and along the controlling faults results in an augmented radon flux. The analysis of the 222Rn emanation field is of significant importance in geochemical, geophysical, and geodynamic studies [25,26,27,28,29], as well as in the search for mineral deposits, including non-radioactive ones, such as kimberlites [30]. Consequently, emanation imaging enables the identification of faults that are currently permeable to underground gases but which are concealed beneath sediments [31].
The potential for integrating MSM and radiometric techniques was explored using the Chidvinskaya pipe of the Chidvinsko–Izhmozersky field of the ADP [30] as a case study. The results of this test demonstrated the consistency of subvertical fractured zones with radio-geochemical anomalies and deep structure. Nevertheless, the experiment was conducted on a single object and along a single profile. A more detailed examination was conducted on the Lomonosov and Verhnetovskaya pipes. As a consequence, the characteristics of the control structures and the deep structure of the pipes have been identified [15,20]. Conversely, the composition, age, and physical properties of pipes vary between different kimberlite fields. Consequently, more reliable conclusions can be drawn by continuing the verification process on a wider range of pipes within the ADP.
One of the key elements of the diamond deposits is kimberlite-controlling faults. The study of such structures can significantly increase the efficiency of exploration work. On the other hand, the study of control faults is difficult due to the complex geological structure. In particular, faults are narrow disturbances often located at great depths, which significantly complicates their study. Obviously, it is advisable to use new methods to study control structures. In particular, the example of previously conducted work shows that faults near kimberlite pipes are confidently identified by the MSM method [15,20,30]. At the same time, anomalous radon flux values are observed at the intersections of faults with the pipe. The listed factors indicate that when using a set of these methods, it is possible to study not only the pipe but also the faults associated with the pipe.
To date, only two diamond deposits of the ADP have been identified: Lomonosova and Griba. The set of passive seismic and radiometric methods has been tested on a number of kimberlite pipes. In particular, the set has been tested on the pipes of the Lomonosova deposit. The Griba deposit has not been previously investigated. Concurrently, the Griba deposit is the highest diamond-bearing pipe in the ADP [2]. Therefore, it was important to conduct research at the Griba deposit. The Griba deposit consists of one pipe, which is currently being developed, which precludes the implementation of a set of methods on it. Consequently, the Volchya kimberlite pipe was selected as the test object due to the fact that the pipe is located close to the Griba deposit. Additionally, the Volchya pipe’s intricate shape allows testing the capabilities of methods for identifying deep structure features. Thus, the aim of this study was to determine the characteristics of kimberlite-controlling faults and pipes in the area of the Griba deposit based on data from a complex of passive seismic and radiometric methods.

2. Study Area

The field studies were conducted in the territory of the Volchya kimberlite pipe, which is located in the central part of the Zimneberezhny diamondiferous district within the Verkhotinsky uplift of the Ruchyevskiy protrusion of the crystalline basement (Arkhangelsk region, European part of Russia) (Figure 1) [32].
The temporal sections reveal the presence of three seismo-stratigraphic strata, which are clearly distinguished from one another by the boundaries of the basement surface and the Riphean. The Riphean is overlain by the Vendian sediments. The surface of the Ust-Pinezhskaya Formation is the most stable within the Vendian sediments, as indicated by seismic data [32]. Explosion pipes have been observed to penetrate the Vendian sediments, which are situated at depths of 50–70 m below the surface [33].
The Volchya pipe belongs to small pipes with poor diamondiferousness [34]. The Volchya pipe is manifested as a weakly contrasting subvertical area of increased electrical conductivity. The Volchya pipe is confined to the area of Quaternary paleodoline development, where the watered sediments display lenticular areas of increased electrical conductivity in the upper part of the section. As evidenced by electrical exploration data, the pipe exhibits a distinct eastward inclination [35]. The surface area of the crater facies rocks was estimated at 4.15 hectares. Following prospecting and appraisal work, it was determined that the excitation object of the magnetic anomaly was not a single large kimberlite body but two converging pipes named Volchya southern and Volchya northern [32] (Figure 2). The observed separation into two distinct objects may be indicative of a complex geological structure. The plan view of the site reveals two distinct oval-shaped structures of varying dimensions, extending along a north–northeast axis. The Volchya northern kimberlite pipe penetrates terrigenous Vendian sediments in close proximity to the Volchya southern pipe. However, it possesses significant distinctive features that allow it to be considered an independent kimberlite body. This is corroborated by the presence of two epicenters of magnetic anomalies and different petrographic compositions, which fulfill the criteria for kimberlite breccias [32].
The vent and crater facies formations are integral to the structure of the pipes. The vent facies are represented by tuffobreccia and xenotuffobreccia, while the crater facies include tuff sandstones, tuff siltstones, sedimentary breccias, tuffs, and tuffites (Figure 2). The vent is characterized by the presence of tuffaceous breccias in its central region, while xenotuffaceous breccias are observed in the periphery. The boundaries between the rock types within the pipe are relatively conventional, as evidenced by the gradual transitions observed in the majority of boreholes penetrating the vent, which progressed from xenotuffobreccia to tuffaceous rocks [32].

3. Methods

The present study considers the combined use of several methods: microseismic sounding (MSM) [17,36], passive seismic interferometry with an advanced stacking method [37], and emanation mapping. The advantage of this set of methods is that it allows one to study the main prospecting features of kimberlite pipes, which are subvertical heterogeneities, the most contrasting horizontal boundaries, and geochemical anomalies. Below is a brief description of these methods, and a more detailed description is presented in [20]. The MSM was first tested on explosion pipes using the Marusinovskoy pipe in the Republic of Belarus as an example [38]. Based on the data obtained, the pipe body and root part of the pipe were identified. It should also be noted that the method has been successfully used to study the deep structure of volcanoes. Thus, the method allowed identifying vents, feeder routes and possible magmatic chambers [17,19,39].

3.1. Passive Seismic Methods

The microseismic sounding method (MSM) is based on the proposal that the vertical component of ambient seismic noise is presented predominantly by the fundamental mode of Rayleigh waves. This assumption is true for natural microseismic oscillation [40]. According to [16,17,36,41,42], the fundamental mode of Rayleigh wave increases its amplitude above low-velocity inhomogeneity and decreases its amplitude above high-velocity inhomogeneity. The variations in the intensity of microseisms were recorded on the surface, while inhomogeneity was located under the surface at some depth. Also, analysis of amplitude information allows for improving the resolution of the method in the horizontal [16,41]. The MSM does not require the medium to be layered. As a consequence, the MSM can be used in complex geological environments near kimberlite pipes.
MSM is a differential amplitude technique where measurements are conducted successively at the points of a profile. Simultaneously, the microseismic signal should be recorded at the reference point located around the studied area to apply a correction to eliminate the non-stationary sounding of the microseismic signal. The result of the processing is the geophysical cross-section, a distribution of relative intensity of microseisms along the profile and in-depth (I). Zones with a higher relative microseism intensity represent an area with relatively reduced velocity properties and vice versa. A more detailed description of the method is presented in [17,19].
Passive seismic interferometry is based on the estimation of an empirical Green’s function by cross-correlation or convolution of ambient noise recorded simultaneously in different locations [43,44,45]. This method is widely used in surface wave tomography [46,47,48] and body wave imaging [49] for the study of fault structure and shallow subsurface structure [50,51,52]. In the present study, an enhanced passive seismic interferometry methodology was employed to reduce the duration of the measurement and enhance the precision of the resulting dispersion curve [37]. The field measurements require simultaneous records of ambient seismic noise at least three points. It is necessary to remove the effect of the azimuthal distribution of ambient noise sources.

3.2. Radon Emanation Method

The radon emanation method was applied in the form of radon flux density (RFD) measurements. RFD, along with radon content in the soil, soil air, rocks, etc., serves as an indicator that characterizes a territory in terms of its tectonics, including the presence of fractures, faults, and endogenous geodynamic processes [53,54,55,56]. RFD was measured using the measuring complex for radon monitoring CAMERA-01 (Niton Research and Development Centre, Moscow, Russia) (Figure 3).
In this method, an accumulation chamber (NK-32) was employed as a passive sampler (Figure 3b). This chamber contains a sorbing layer of activated carbon [57]. Prior to the installation of the chamber on the ground surface, the sorbent was transferred from the sorption column (SK-13). The attachment of SC-13 to NK-32 serves to protect the sorbent from 222Rn, which is already present in the atmospheric air. The utilization of this methodology ensured that the pressure differential between the atmosphere and the chamber remained constant throughout the sampling period, thereby facilitating the natural removal of 222Rn from the soil surface. The sorption of 222Rn on coal is quantified using the measurement channels of the CAMERA-01 complex. Each measuring channel comprises a β-radiation detection unit (BDB-13), which is connected via a switch (MK-4). The software program “Radon 98” v1.0 is responsible for controlling the operation of the measuring channels within the complex, processing the registered pulses, and viewing and registering the measurement results. To quantify the activity of sorbed 222Rn, carbon from SC-13 is introduced into BDB-13. The measurement of 222Rn activity in coal is conducted through the analysis of the short-lived daughter products of 222Rn decay, namely 214Pb and 214Bi, which are in a state of radioactive equilibrium with 222Rn sorbed in coal.

4. Description of the Field Measurements

RFD was measured at 156 points distributed along 15 profiles (Figure 4). The principal studies were conducted within and in the immediate vicinity of the known boundaries of the Volchya kimberlite pipe. Furthermore, two profiles were investigated outside the kimberlite pipe, one to the northeast and one to the southwest, at a distance of 0.5 km from the pipe. The distance between the measurement points was 30 m. Meteorological parameters, namely atmospheric air temperature and relative humidity, were recorded during the installation and removal of the accumulation chambers.
To implement the passive interferometry method, the signal was accumulated at five points. Four—at the edges of the study area. One—in the center. The distance between the stations was from one-half to one kilometer. The microseismic signal was recorded simultaneously by all stations during the day.
For the MSM methods, measurements were made along the seventh profile. Profile 1 is located to the south of the pipe. Profile 2 crosses the Volchya southern pipe. Profile 3 passes between the southern and northern pipes. Profile 4 crosses the Volchya northern pipe. Profiles 5 and 6 are located to the north of the pipe. Profile 7 crosses the pipe in the meridional direction (Figure 4). Profiles 1–5 coincided with radon profiles but went out at a greater distance from the pipe. At each point, microseisms accumulated over three hours, and the reconciliation time was five hours. The distance between the points was 30 m. The registration of microseisms was carried out simultaneously by the mobile and reference stations. The reference station was located near the intersection of profiles 3 and 7.

5. Results

5.1. Results of the Passive Seismic Methods

According to the results of the passive seismic interferometry, the dispersion curve was obtained. The dispersion was used for the calculation of the 1D averaged velocity model of the studied pipe and enclosing environment (Figure 5). The calculated model consists of seven layers, bordering depths of 10 m, 30 m, 35 m, 70 m, 250 m, 350 m, and 1200 m.
The most probable correspondence of the obtained depths and geological formations is obtained according to the previous data [1,32,33] and is presented in Table 1. According to Table 1, more contrast formations are in the different layers of Vendian deposits.
According to the results of the MSM, a low-velocity tubular body of a conical shape with its apex facing down was identified. The central part of the low-velocity body is in alignment with the anticipated pipe boundaries; however, the low-velocity body is more substantial in size (see Figure 6). Based on the outcomes of profiles 2 and 4, the pipe is comprised of two distinct blocks: those with low contrast and elevated intensity. The blocks with low contrast exhibit an intensity range of 1–4 dB, while those with elevated intensity display a range of 4–7 dB. The southern pipe has been identified with more certainty. Thus, the body of the pipe has been imaged at depths from 50 to 300 m.
Both pipes have roots-oriented eastward at depths between 250 and 120 m. This depth range correlates with the lower part of the Padunskaya suite of the Vendian deposits. The pipe above 120 m is only indicated on profile 2 and exhibits a vertical eastern border and an inclined western border towards the west. Furthermore, in the western section, the southern pipe has been observed to extend into the carbon deposits. Profile 4 indicates that the northern Volchya pipe does not penetrate the Vendian deposits and exhibits a complex bend at depths between 150 and 200 m. The pipe is predominantly characterized by a low-contrast body. The upper part of the pipe at depths between 120 and 150 m is predominantly located to the west of the proposed borders. No significant anomalies were identified between the northern and southern pipes. However, it is notable that the western section of the profile displays a layered structure, while the eastern part exhibits a vertical zone of low velocities, particularly in the Padunskaya and Mezenskaya suites of the Vendian deposits.
The sub-meridional profile 7 crossed the pipe in only a few points (see Figure 4). The southern Volchya pipe is identified in points 7-4 to 7-6. The northern Volchya pipe is identified in points 7-12 and 7-15. The southern boundary is in good agreement with the data from the previous model of the pipe. Nevertheless, a minor subvertical low-velocity zone was discerned in points 7-2 and 7-3. This zone has been identified in the upper layer of the Padun suite and in the carbon deposit at a depth of between 30 and 120 m. The northern boundary of the northern pipe has been observed to extend north of the proposed boundaries. At points 7-14, the pipe is observed to connect with a deep fault, as indicated on the boundary of the Mezen and Ust-Pinezh suites. Additionally, in the northern part of the pipe, within the carboniferous deposits at points 7-14, a zone of reduced velocities is identified, exhibiting similarities to the zone observed at points 7-2 to the south of the pipe.
The host environment is characterized by a high degree of complexity. As indicated by the MSM, a number of vertical contrasting faults have been identified. The faults were identified at varying depths. A number of these faults are situated in close proximity to the pipe and traverse the crystalline basement, as well as the Riphean and Vendian deposits. The most notable of these faults have been identified at points 7-14 and are found to be interconnected with the pipe. It seems probable that the other two similar faults, identified in points 1-2 and 2-9, are also interconnected with the pipe. The geological medium to the north of the pipe exhibits consolidation and elevated velocities in accordance with the expected characteristics.

5.2. Assessment of the Surface Distribution of RFD

RFD was measured at 156 points distributed along 15 profiles (Figure 4). The principal studies were conducted within and in the immediate vicinity of the known boundaries of the Volchya kimberlite pipe. Furthermore, two profiles were investigated outside the kimberlite pipe, one to the northeast and one to the southwest, at a distance of 0.5 km from the pipe. The distance between the measurement points was 30 m. Meteorological parameters, namely atmospheric air temperature and relative humidity, were recorded during the installation and removal of the accumulation chambers.
The results of the RFD distribution studies demonstrated a considerable range in values, from 1 mBq/m2/s to 56 mBq/m2/s, with an average value of 7.5 mBq/m2/s (Figure 7). The meteorological parameters were registered throughout the entirety of the field measurements, and the recorded values demonstrated a variation in atmospheric air temperature from 13.4 °C to 26.2 °C, with a corresponding variation in relative humidity from 39.1% to 62.1%. It is notable that atmospheric precipitation was absent throughout the research period, which allowed for unobstructed sorption of 222Rn on the carbon sorbent.
The highest values of RFD are observed in the area situated to the south of the junction that separates the south Volchya and north Volchya pipes. The primary contour of 222Rn distribution aligns with the surface boundaries of the kimberlite pipe, exhibiting a range of RFD from 8 to 36 mBq/m2/s. It is established that fractured zones are typically situated in the near-pipe space of kimberlite bodies, which provides the necessary conditions for radon transport in the host rock massif [58]. However, two radon anomalies with RFD values ranging up to 16 mBq/m2/s are observed in the northwest and southeast of the Wolf south pipe, which may indicate the true boundaries of the pipe. An assessment of RFD on two separate profiles outside the Volchya pipe from the northeast and southwest revealed the presence of weak radon anomalies in the central parts of the profiles. The positioning of the anomalies may suggest the existence of a controlling fault aligned with the northeast-to-southwest line.

6. Discussion

6.1. Faults

One of the more challenging aspects of pipe study is the identification of controlling faults. The sedimentary layers that host pipe Volchya also exhibit a complex structural composition. However, it should be noted that only a subset of the faults exhibit a contrastive vertical structure that is analogous to the controlling faults observed in the case of pipe Lomonosova [20]. One of these faults is identified at points 7-14. According to the results of processing, this fault is connected to the northern pipe (Figure 6). The aforementioned fault has been identified within the crystalline basement, the Riphean deposit, and the Ust-Pinezhskaya suite of the Vendian deposit. An analogous anomaly is observed at points 1-2 and 2-9. It is probable that this is a single fault. The interconnection between this fault and the pipe has not been identified, according to the MSM. However, these points are situated in close proximity to the southern pipe. Based on the observed directional trend from points 1-2 to points 2-9, it can be inferred that the fault extends in a northwestern direction across the southern pipe (Figure 6). The area in question exhibits the highest concentration of radon emanation (Figure 7). It has been demonstrated that the formation of fault zones and augmented fracturing facilitate the transfer of radon within the massif of host rocks and control geological structures. It seems reasonable to conclude that this anomaly is caused by the intersection of the pipe with a fault. It can, therefore, be surmised that there is a greater likelihood of an interconnection between the southern pipe and the controlling fault located in the northwest part. A fault close in location in space is described as the ore-containing for the Volchya pipe in paper [34].
One of the most distinctive characteristics of control faults is their enhanced horizontal resolution and contrast. These attributes suggest that the rocks within these faults are more fragmented [16,17]. In turn, the heightened fragmentation can be attributed to the fact that they were subjected to elevated mechanical stress as the kimberlite ascended to the surface. The faults in different layers have both different intensities and different shapes. Thus, the increased contrast was manifested in the Riphean sediments. This indicates the importance of estimating the depth of occurrence of different layers when analyzing the MSM results. The northern pipe has a lower level of radon emanation at the point of interconnection of the fault and pipe (Figure 6 and Figure 7). This fact can be explained by the fact that points 7-14 are located outside the territory where radon emanation was studied. In addition, this act indicates an increased thickness of the overlying rocks.
It should be noted that the fault at points 7-14 was not identified at an early stage. However, according to the MSM data, it is confidently shown that it is the kimberlite-hosting fault for the northern Volchya pipe. This fact indicates that even closely spaced pipes have different control structures. On the other hand, the demonstrated example shows that the presented set of methods can be used to study the deep structure of complex objects. It should also be noted that the integrated use of passive seismic and radiological methods allowed for a more substantiated interpretation of such important objects as the intersection of faults and pipes, as well as the true position of the pipe sides.
A distinctive feature of the host environment of the Volchya pipe is the absence of a system of vertical faults penetrating the entire thickness of the sedimentary cover. Thus, using the example of the pipes of the M.V. Lomonosov deposit, as well as the Chidvinskaya and Verkhnetovskaya pipes, it is shown that in the host environment, there is a series of parallel vertical faults traced at depths from 50 m to 2 km. These differences indicate that the leading, controlling significance is possessed by faults located at depths greater than 400 m. This depth range corresponds to the lower part of the Mezenskaya suite, the Ust-Pinezhskaya suite of the Vendian deposits, and the Riphean deposits. Also, the observed difference can be explained by the fact that the pipes of the Lomonosov deposit are located near a wide kimberlite-controlling zone [34]. At the same time, the Volchya pipe is removed from it at a distance of more than 1 km [34]. From this comparison, it is fair to assume that the kimberlite-controlling structure represented by an extensive fault zone is expressed as a series of vertical faults. In this case, this fault zone can be offset from the pipes. Meanwhile, the kimberlite-hosting fault itself can extend to a significant distance outside the controlling zone.

6.2. Pipe

The southern and northern Volchya pipes have been identified as two low-velocity bodies with disparate geometries, each exhibiting distinct controlling faults (Figure 6). Furthermore, the two pipes exhibited distinct blocks characterized by a low contrast and elevated intensity. These characteristics are more closely aligned with those observed in the pipes of the Lomonosovo deposit: Lomonosovo, Pionerskaia, and Pomorskaya [15,21,22,23]. These findings indicate that the true level of diamondiferousness may, in fact, be greater than previously estimated. It is noteworthy that the block with elevated intensity is partly located outside the presumed boundaries of the pipe, indicating an unexplored drilling area. Thus, the actual dimensions of the southern pipe may be a third larger than previously assumed. The results of the MSM analysis at the Lomonosov and Pionerskaya pipes indicate that the block with elevated intensity corresponds to the second phase of intrusion. It may, therefore, be posited that the block of elevated intensity observed in the Volchya pipe could also represent a second phase of intrusion. This fact is very important. So, the paper [34] shows that the second phase is more diamond-bearing than the first.
The dimensions of the pipe in ADP serve as an indirect indicator of the presence of diamonds within the pipe. Thus, diamond-bearing pipes have an area exceeding 10 hectares [34]. Previous exploration work has indicated that the area of the Volchya pipe is 4 hectares. However, the size of the pipes that have been allocated is, in fact, twice as large as was previously thought. It can be posited that the actual dimensions of the pipe are likely to be in the region of 8 hectares. Therefore, the extent of the Volchya pipe is comparable to that of the Pomorskaya and Snegurochka pipes within the Lomonosov deposit.

6.3. Vendian Deposit

According to the results obtained, the main part of the Volchya pipe located in Padun suits the Vendian deposit (Figure 6). This fact is consistent with the results of geological exploration [32]. However, pipes have different shapes in the lower and upper parts of the Padun suit (Figure 6). In the lower part, the pipe is inclined to the east. The upper part of the pipe has a vertical east border and is inclined to the western border. The boundary between the upper and lower parts is located at a depth of 120 m (Figure 6).
There are no boundaries in the Padun suite according to the obtained velocity model (Figure 5 and Figure 6). However, this boundary can be identified according to the changing shape of velocity anomalies (Figure 6). At the same time, this boundary is of great importance in the process of the formation of the Volchya pipe. In particular, it indicates that there may be pipes that do not penetrate completely through the Vendian deposits.
It should be noted that there is a low-velocity anomaly to the east of the pipe (Figure 6). The intensity of this anomaly is 9 dB. This is slightly higher than that of the pipe but significantly less than that of the faults. Moreover, this anomaly is located in the upper and lower parts of the Padunskaya suite. These characteristics are close to the pipe. In this regard, it is important to study the nature of this heterogeneity.

7. Conclusions

The proposed set of methods, MSM, passive seismic interferometry, and radon surveys, made it possible to obtain a high-quality image of the studied environment. As a result, the pipe body and the controlling fault were identified. Thus, it has been shown that the proposed set of methods can be successfully applied in the search and study of kimberlite pipes in the Chernoozerskaya area of the ADP.
The Volchya pipe is identified as two low-velocity, cone-shaped bodies with an anomaly in the RFD. The highest level of RFD is caused by the intersection of fault and pipe.
The obtained results showed that the tested set of methods can increase the efficiency of verification drilling planning. In particular, it was shown that on the Volchya pipe:
−
the true dimensions are larger than was previously estimated;
−
each pipe contains various blocks, which are probably different phases of intrusion;
−
it was shown that during the formation of the pipe, an important role is played by the boundary inside the Padunskaya suite of Vendian deposits at a depth of 120 m;
−
specific faults controlling each pipe were established;
−
faults controlling each pipe have a vertical structure and high contrast in the Ust-Pinega suite of Vendian deposit and Riphean deposit
−
the pipe contains blocks that have not come to the surface of Vendian deposits;
−
in terms of the features of manifestation, the studied pipe is close to the pipes of the Lomonosov deposit.
The work carried out showed that kimberlite-controlling faults are located in the Riphean deposits and the Ust-Pinezhskaya suite of the Vendian deposits. Previously, when searching for and studying pipes, the main attention was paid to the Padunskaya suite of the Vendian. The Volchya pipe requires further exploration, including drilling. Further study of the identified facts will allow us to clarify the characteristics of the pipe. In particular, to more accurately estimate the size and diamond content of the pipe.

Author Contributions

K.D.: conceptualization, investigation, methodology, validation, resources, supervision, project administration, funding acquisition, and writing. E.Y.: conceptualization, investigation, validation, formal analysis, and review and editing. A.P.: conceptualization, investigation, validation, methodology, formal analysis, writing, and review and editing. V.B.: investigation, validation, methodology, formal analysis, and writing. A.K.: investigation, validation, methodology, formal analysis, and review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by a grant from the Russian Science Foundation, number 23-27-10022.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

References

  1. Kutinov, Y.G.; Chistova, Z.B. Hierarchical series of manifestations of alkaline-ultrabasic magmatism in the Arkhangelsk diamondiferous province. Their reflection in geological and geophysical materials. Pravda Severa, 2004. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  2. Garanin, K.V.; Garanin, V.K.; Kudryavtseva, G.P. Petrochemistry and mineralogy of alkaline-ultrabasic magmatites in the Arkhangelsk diamondiferous province and models of their formation. Bull. Perm Univ. Geol. 2008, 10, 32–49. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  3. Verzhak, V.V.; Minchenko, G.V.; Larchenko, V.A. Experience in prospecting for diamond deposits in the Arkhangelsk diamondiferous province and adjacent territories of the north of the East European Platform. Problems of Forecasting and Prospecting of Diamond Deposits in Closed Territories. In Proceedings of the Conference Dedicated to the 40th Anniversary of YANIGP CRNIGRI AK ‘ALROSA’/YaNTs SB RAS. Yakutsk, Russia, 8–20 March 2008; pp. 308–314. (In Russian). [Google Scholar]
  4. Tappe, S.; Smart, K.; Torsvik, T.; Massuyeau, M.; de Wit, M. Geodynamics of kimberlites on a cooling Earth: Clues to plate tectonic evolution and deep volatile cycle. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2018, 484, 1–14. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Decision of the Working Meeting. Scientific, Methodological and Technological Problems of Forecasting and Searching for Weakly Contrasting Kimberlite Pipes in the East European and East Siberian Diamondiferous Provinces; VSEGEI: St. Petersburg, Russia, 2017; p. 7. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  6. Korotkov, Y.V. To the issue of identification and tracking of rupture faults by characteristic changes in conductivity in sedimentary sediment strata. Geophys. Res. 2011, 12, 81–92. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  7. Stogniy, V.V.; Korotkov, Y.V. Search for Kimberlite Bodies by the Method of Transient Processes; Publishing house ‘Malotyrazhnaya typography 2D’: Novosibirsk, Russia, 2010; p. 121. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  8. Sobolev, V.K. Problems of diamond prospecting by indicator minerals on the territory of the Arkhangelsk region. In Geology and Minerals of the North of the European Part of the USSR; Arkhangelsk Geologia Publishing House: Arkhangelsk, Russia, 1991; p. 314. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  9. Bogatikov, O.A. Arkhangelsk Diamondiferous Province (Geology, Petrography, Geochemistry and Mineralogy); Publishing House MSU: Moscow, Russia, 1999; p. 524. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  10. Kudryavtseva, G.P. Diamond microcrystals from kimberlites of Arkhangelsk diamondiferous province deposits. Izv. Vuzov Ser. Geol. Explor. 2004, 3, 32–38. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  11. Androsov, E.A. On structural control of kimberlite bodies location on the example of the Arkhangelsk kimberlite province. In Efficiency of Forecasting and Prospecting for Diamond Deposits: Past, Present and Future (Diamonds-50); VSEGEI: St. Petersburg, Russia, 2004; pp. 9–18. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  12. Bushkov, K.Y. Structure of the Nakyn Kimberlite Field and Signs of Hidden Shear Kimberli-Controlling Structures. Ph.D. Thesis, MGRI, Moscow, Russia, 2006. (In Russian). [Google Scholar]
  13. Vasiliev, I.D. Geological Structures in the Near-Tube Space of the Arkhangelskaya Pipe and Their Use for Prospecting for Primary Diamond Deposits in the Zimneberezhny District. Ph.D. Thesis, MGRI-RGGRU, Moscow, Russia, 2010; p. 32. (In Russian). [Google Scholar]
  14. Ignatov, P.A. Paleotectonic structures of the Zimneberezhny diamondiferous area of the Arkhangelsk region. MOIP Bull. Dep. Geol. 2008, 3, 13–20. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  15. Danilov, K.B.; Yakovlev, E.Y.; Afonin, N.Y.; Druzhinin, S.V. Deep structure of the Verkhnetovskaya kimberlite pipe in the Arkhangelsk diamondiferous province according to passive seismic and radiological methods. Geophys. Prospect. 2023, 71, 1873–1885. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Gorbatikov, A.V.; Tsukanov, A.A. Simulation of the Rayleigh waves in the proximity of the scattering velocity inhomogeneities. Exploring the capabilities of the microseismic sounding method. Izv. Phys. Solid Earth 2011, 4, 354–369. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Gorbatikov, A.V.; Montesinos, F.G.; Arnoso, J.; Stepanova, M.Y.; Benavent, M.; Tsukanov, A.A. New features in the subsurface structure model of El Hierro Island (Canaries) from low-frequency microseismic sounding: An insight into the 2011 seismo-volcanic crisis. Surv. Geophys. 2013, 34, 463–489. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  18. Sobisevich, A.L.; Gorbatikov, A.V.; Ovsuchenko, A.N. Deep structure of the Mt. Karabetov Mud volcano. Dokl. Earth Sci. 2008, 422, 1181–1185. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Kugaenko, Y.A.; Saltykov, V.A.; Gorbatikov, A.V.; Stepanova, M.Y. Deep Structure of the Zone of Tolbachik Fissure Eruptions (Kamchatka, Klyuchevskoy Volcano Group): Evidence from a Complex of Geological and Geophysical Data. Izv. Phys. Solid Earth 2018, 54, 444–465. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Danilov, K.B.; Yakovlev, E.Y.; Afonin, N.Y. Study of deep structure of the kimberlite pipe named after M. Lomonosov of the Arkhangelsk diamondiferous province obtained by joint using of passive seismic and radiometric methods. Pure Appl. Geophys. 2021, 178, 3933–3952. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Danilov, K.B. The application of microseismic sounding to the study of the Lomonosov volcanic pipe, Arkhangel’sk Diamond Province. Vestn. KRAUNTs Nauk. Zemle 2011, 17, 231–237. [Google Scholar]
  22. Frantsuzova, V.I.; Danilov, K.B. The Structure of the Lomonosov Volcanic Pipe in the Arkhangel’sk Diamond Province from Anomalies of the Microseismic Field. J. Volcanol. Seismol. 2016, 10, 339–346. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Francuzova, V.I.; Danilov, K.B. The location of the S10 and Chidviya Kimberlite Pipes from Inhomogeneities in the Host Rock Structure of the Nenoksa and Chidviya–Izhmozero Fields in the Arkhangelsk Diamond Province as Detected by Background Microseisms. J. Volcanol. Seismol. 2018, 12, 332–340. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Yakovlev, E.; Puchkov, A. Radon over kimberlite pipes: Surface field experiments and calculations of vertical diffusion (Arkhangelsk diamondiferous province, NW Russia). Appl. Sci. 2021, 11, 11765. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Bobrov, A.A. The study of radon volumetric activity in fracture zones of Priolkhon and southern Priangarya: Methodology and preliminary results. Izvestiya Sibirskogo otedeleniya Secheniya Zemlya nauki RANEN Proceedings of the Siberian Branch of the Earth Sciences Section of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences. Geol. Prospect. Explor. Ore Depos. 2008, 6, 124–129. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  26. Miklyaev, P.S. Scientific Bases of Assessment of Potential Radon Hazard of Platform Territories. Ph.D. Thesis, IGE RAS, Moscow, Russia, 2015; p. 307. (In Russian). [Google Scholar]
  27. Baskaran, M. Radon: A Tracer for Geological, Geophysical and Geochemical Studies; Springer: Berlin/Heidelberg, Germany, 2016; p. 260. [Google Scholar]
  28. Selvam, S. Quantification of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) using radon, radium tracers and nutrient inputs in Punnakayal, south coast of India. Geosci. Front. 2021, 12, 29–38. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Peel, M. Exploring the reliability of 222Rn as a tracer of groundwater age in alluvial aquifers: Insights from the explicit simulation of variable 222Rn production. Water Res. 2023, 235, 119880. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Kiselev, G.P. Radiometric and seismic study of Chidvinskaya kimberlite pipe (Arkhangelsk diamondiferous province, North of the East European Craton, Russia). Geofísica Int. 2017, 2, 147–155. [Google Scholar]
  31. Seminsky, K.J. Radon activity of different types of crustal faults (on the example of the Western Pribaikalsky and Southern Priangarya). Geol. Geophys. 2009, 50, 881–896. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  32. Kaplan, A.D. Report on the results of prospecting and evaluation work on kimberlite pipes of anomalies 401 (Vol-chya), 402 (Verkhotina), 407 (Osetinskaya), 451 (Maiskaya), N-154 (Pervo-maiskaya). In Verkhotinsky Detachment, 1985–1988; Geological report; IN 440212; Russian Federal Geological Fund: Moscow, Russia, 1988. [Google Scholar]
  33. Gubajdullin, M.G. Geoenvironmental Conditions for the Development of Mineral Resources in the European North of Russia; M.V. Lomonosov Pedagogical University: Arkhangelsk, Russia, 2002. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  34. Larchenko, V.A. Diamond potential of kimberlites and related rocks of the Winter Coast. Vestn. Voronezh Univ. Geol. 2004, 134–147. [Google Scholar]
  35. Karshakov, E.V.; Kercman, V.M.; Moilanen, E.V.; Podmogov, E.V. Possibilities of airborne electrical exploration in detailed kimberlite prospecting. In Materials of the VIII All-Russian School-Seminar on Electromagnetic Sounding of the Earth Named After M.N. Berdichevsky and L.L. Vanyana (EMZ-2021); Institute of Oceanology RAS: Moscow, Russia, 2021; pp. 234–240. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
  36. Gorbatikov, A.V.; Stepanova, M.Y. Statistical characteristics and stationarity properties of low-frequency seismic signals. Izv. Phys. Solid Earth 2008, 44, 50–59. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Gorbatikov, A.V.; Larin, N.V.; Moiseev, E.I.; Belyashov, A.V. The microseismic sounding method: Application for the study of the buried diatreme structure. Dokl. Earth Sci. 2009, 428, 1222–1226. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  38. Afonin, N.; Kozlovskaya, E.; Nevalainen, J.; Narkilahti, J. Improving quality of empirical Greens functions, obtained by cross-correlation of high-frequency ambient seismic noise. Solid Earth Discuss 2019, 10, 1621–1634. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Likhodeev, D.V.; Zhostkov, R.A.; Presnov, D.A.; Dudarov, Z.I.; Dolov, S.M.; Danilov, K.B. Studying the Deep Structure of Elbrus Volcano by Microseismic Sounding. J. Volcanol. Seismol. 2017, 11, 413–418. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Bath, M. Spectral Analysis in Geophysics; Elsevier: Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 1974; pp. 432–443. [Google Scholar]
  41. Lin, F.C.; Tsai, V.C.; Ritzwoller, M.H. The local amplification of surface waves: A new observable to constrain elastic velocities, density, and anelastic attenuation. JGR 2012, 117, B06302. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Eddy, C.L.; Ekström, G. Local amplification of Rayleigh waves in the continental United States observed on the USArray. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 2014, 402, 50–57. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Shapiro, N.M.; Campillo, M. Emergence of broadband Rayleigh waves from correlations of the ambient seismic noise. Geophys. Res. Lett. 2004, 31, L07614. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. Wapenaar, K.; Draganov, D.; Robertsson, J.O. Seismic Interferometry: History and Present Status; Society of Exploration Geophysicists: Houston, TX, USA, 2008. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Wapenaar, K.; Draganov, D. Tutorial on seismic interferometry. J. Geophys. 2010, 75, 75A195–75A209. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Shapiro, N.M.; Campillo, M.; Stehly, L.; Ritzwoller, M.H. High-resolution surface-wave tomography from ambient seismic noise. Science 2005, 307, 1615–1618. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Yang, Y.; Ritzwoller, M.H.; Levshin, A.L.; Shapiro, N.M. Ambient noise Rayleigh wave tomography across Europe. Geophys. J. Int. 2007, 168, 259–274. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Lin, F.C.; Ritzwoller, M.H.; Townend, J.; Bannister, S.; Savage, M.K. Ambient noise Rayleigh wave tomography of New Zealand. Geophys. J. Int. 2007, 170, 649–666. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  49. Poli, P.; Campillo, M.; Pedersen, H.; LAPNET Working Group. Body-wave imaging of Earth’s mantle discontinuities from ambient seismic noise. Science 2012, 338, 1063–1065. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  50. Cheng, F.; Xia, J.; Xu, Y.; Xu, Z.; Pan, Y. A new passive seismic method based on seismic interferometry and multichannel analysis of surface waves. J. Appl. Geophys. 2015, 117, 126–135. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Le Feuvre, M.; Joubert, A.; Leparoux, D.; Cote, P. Passive multi-channel analysis of surface waves with cross-correlations and beamforming. Application to a sea dike. J. Appl. Geophys. 2015, 114, 36–51. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Lin, F.C.; Li, D.; Clayton, R.W.; Hollis, D. High-resolution 3D shallow crustal structure in Long Beach, California: Application of ambient noise tomography on a dense seismic array. Geophysics 2013, 78, Q45–Q56. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Ciotoli, G.; Bigi, S.; Cavinato, G.P. Radon distribution as shallow evidence of buried fault geometry in the Fucino plain (Central Italy). 6th International INQUA Meeting on Paleoseismology, Active Tectonics and Archaeoseismology. Misc. INGV 2015, 27, 79–82. [Google Scholar]
  54. Drolet, J.-P.; Martel, R. Distance to fault as a proxy for radon gas concentration in dwellings. J. Environ. Radioact. 2016, 152, 8–15. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  55. Moreno, V.; Bach, J.; Zarroca, M.; Font, L.; Roqué, C.; Linares, R. Characterization of radon levels in soil and groundwater in the North Maladeta Fault area (Central Pyrenees) and their effects on indoor radon concentration in a thermal spa. J. Environ. Radioact. 2018, 189, 1–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  56. Miklyaev, P.S.; Petrova, T. B Studies of anomalous seasonal variations in radon flux density in a fault zone. Geochemistry 2021, 66, 364–378. (In Russian) [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Tsapalov, A.; Kovler, K.; Miklyaev, P. Open charcoal chamber method for mass measurements of radon exhalation rate from soil surface. J. Environ. Radioact. 2016, 160, 28–35. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Khazanovich-Wolf, K.K. Diatreme Plumes of Astroblems or ‘Bolide Model’ of Kimberlite Pipes Formation; Geomaster Publishing House: Petrozavodsk, Russia, 2007; p. 272. (In Russian) [Google Scholar]
Applsci 15 00657 g001
Figure 1. Study area and pipe contour.
Figure 1. Study area and pipe contour.
Applsci 15 00657 g001
Applsci 15 00657 g002
Figure 2. Geological section of the Volchya pipe [32].
Figure 2. Geological section of the Volchya pipe [32].
Applsci 15 00657 g002
Applsci 15 00657 g003
Figure 3. Measuring complex for radon monitoring CAMERA-01 (a) (photo taken from the official site of the equipment manufacturer https://www.niton.su, accessed on 7 January 2025) and accumulation chamber with carbon sorbent for the following RFD measurement (b).
Figure 3. Measuring complex for radon monitoring CAMERA-01 (a) (photo taken from the official site of the equipment manufacturer https://www.niton.su, accessed on 7 January 2025) and accumulation chamber with carbon sorbent for the following RFD measurement (b).
Applsci 15 00657 g003
Applsci 15 00657 g004
Figure 4. Scheme of field measurements.
Figure 4. Scheme of field measurements.
Applsci 15 00657 g004
Applsci 15 00657 g005
Figure 5. Results of passive seismic interferometry. Dispersion curve of the fundamental mode of Rayleigh waves (a) and S-wave velocity model (b,c).
Figure 5. Results of passive seismic interferometry. Dispersion curve of the fundamental mode of Rayleigh waves (a) and S-wave velocity model (b,c).
Applsci 15 00657 g005
Applsci 15 00657 g006
Figure 6. Results of passive seismic methods. Geophysical cross-sections according to the microseismic sounding method with profile numbers above the sections. Cross-section intersection lines marked by vertical dashed lines (a–f,h). S-wave velocity model (g,i) calculated according to passive seismic interferometry. Horizontal dashed lines—geological formation: Q—Quaternary sediments; C—carbonate sediments; Vpd, Vmz, Vup—Padunuan, Mezen and Ust-Pinega suites of Vendian deposit; R—Riphean sediments; Ar—Archean sediments. Red horizontal dashed lines—a proposed boundary in the Padunian suite.
Figure 6. Results of passive seismic methods. Geophysical cross-sections according to the microseismic sounding method with profile numbers above the sections. Cross-section intersection lines marked by vertical dashed lines (a–f,h). S-wave velocity model (g,i) calculated according to passive seismic interferometry. Horizontal dashed lines—geological formation: Q—Quaternary sediments; C—carbonate sediments; Vpd, Vmz, Vup—Padunuan, Mezen and Ust-Pinega suites of Vendian deposit; R—Riphean sediments; Ar—Archean sediments. Red horizontal dashed lines—a proposed boundary in the Padunian suite.
Applsci 15 00657 g006
Applsci 15 00657 g007
Figure 7. RFD distribution map.
Figure 7. RFD distribution map.
Applsci 15 00657 g007
Table 1. S-wave velocity model with corresponding geological formations.
Table 1. S-wave velocity model with corresponding geological formations.
Depth, mS-Wave Velocity, m/sGeological Formations
0–7216Q
7–28660C2ol
28–32785C2Vr
32–70840C2Ur
70–245870Vzl (Vpd)
245–5301850Vmz
530–12002500Vup
1200–15002700R
1500 and above-AR
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Danilov, K.; Yakovlev, E.; Puchkov, A.; Bykov, V.; Katorin, A. The Deep Structure of the Kimberlite Pipe Volchya in the Arkhangelsk Diamond Province and Controlling Faults Based on Passive Seismic and Radiological Methods (Northwest Russia). Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 657. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020657

AMA Style

Danilov K, Yakovlev E, Puchkov A, Bykov V, Katorin A. The Deep Structure of the Kimberlite Pipe Volchya in the Arkhangelsk Diamond Province and Controlling Faults Based on Passive Seismic and Radiological Methods (Northwest Russia). Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(2):657. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020657

Chicago/Turabian Style

Danilov, Konstantin, Evgeny Yakovlev, Andrey Puchkov, Vladimir Bykov, and Alexander Katorin. 2025. "The Deep Structure of the Kimberlite Pipe Volchya in the Arkhangelsk Diamond Province and Controlling Faults Based on Passive Seismic and Radiological Methods (Northwest Russia)" Applied Sciences 15, no. 2: 657. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020657

APA Style

Danilov, K., Yakovlev, E., Puchkov, A., Bykov, V., & Katorin, A. (2025). The Deep Structure of the Kimberlite Pipe Volchya in the Arkhangelsk Diamond Province and Controlling Faults Based on Passive Seismic and Radiological Methods (Northwest Russia). Applied Sciences, 15(2), 657. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15020657

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop