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Article

Influence of Spill Pressure and Saturation on the Migration and Distribution of Diesel Oil Contaminant in Unconfined Aquifers Using Three-Dimensional Numerical Simulations

1
Department of Chemistry, Life Sciences and Environmental Sustainability, University of Parma,Parco Area delle Scienze 157/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
2
INFN Gruppo Collegato di Parma, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 7/A, 43124 Parma, Italy
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(17), 9303; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179303
Submission received: 16 July 2025 / Revised: 19 August 2025 / Accepted: 21 August 2025 / Published: 24 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Sciences)

Abstract

Spilled hydrocarbons released from oil pipeline accidents can result in long-term environmental contamination and significant damage to habitats. In this regard, evaluating actions in response to vulnerability scenarios is fundamental to emergency management and groundwater integrity. To this end, understanding the trajectories and their influence on the various parameters and characteristics of the contaminant’s fate through accurate numerical simulations can aid in developing a rapid remediation strategy. This paper develops a numerical model using the CactusHydro code, which is based on a high-resolution shock-capturing (HRSC) conservative method that accurately follows sharp discontinuities and temporal dynamics for a three-phase fluid flow. We analyze nine different emergency scenarios that represent the breaking of a diesel oil onshore pipeline in a porous medium. These scenarios encompass conditions such as dry season rupture, rainfall-induced saturation, and varying pipeline failure pressures. The influence of the spilled oil pressure and water saturation in the unsaturated zone is analyzed by following the saturation contour profiles of the three-phase fluid flow. We follow with the high-accuracy formation of shock fronts of the advective part of the migration. Additionally, the mass distribution of the expelled contaminant along the porous medium during the emergency is analyzed and quantified for the various scenarios. The results obtained indicate that the aquifer contamination strongly depends on the pressure outflow in the vertical flow. For a fixed pressure value, as water saturation increases, the mass of contaminant decreases, while the contamination speed increases, allowing the contaminant to reach extended areas. This study suggests that, even for LNAPLs, the distribution of leaked oil depends strongly on the spill pressure. If the pressure reaches 20 atm at the time of pipeline failure, then contamination may extend as deep as two meters below the water table. Additionally, different seasonal conditions can influence the spread of contaminants. This insight could directly inform guidelines and remediation measures for spill accidents. The CactusHydro code is a valuable tool for such applications.
Keywords: diesel oil spill; diesel oil migration; onshore pipelines; groundwater contamination modeling diesel oil spill; diesel oil migration; onshore pipelines; groundwater contamination modeling

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MDPI and ACS Style

Feo, A.; Celico, F. Influence of Spill Pressure and Saturation on the Migration and Distribution of Diesel Oil Contaminant in Unconfined Aquifers Using Three-Dimensional Numerical Simulations. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 9303. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179303

AMA Style

Feo A, Celico F. Influence of Spill Pressure and Saturation on the Migration and Distribution of Diesel Oil Contaminant in Unconfined Aquifers Using Three-Dimensional Numerical Simulations. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(17):9303. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179303

Chicago/Turabian Style

Feo, Alessandra, and Fulvio Celico. 2025. "Influence of Spill Pressure and Saturation on the Migration and Distribution of Diesel Oil Contaminant in Unconfined Aquifers Using Three-Dimensional Numerical Simulations" Applied Sciences 15, no. 17: 9303. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179303

APA Style

Feo, A., & Celico, F. (2025). Influence of Spill Pressure and Saturation on the Migration and Distribution of Diesel Oil Contaminant in Unconfined Aquifers Using Three-Dimensional Numerical Simulations. Applied Sciences, 15(17), 9303. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15179303

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