Dealuminated Metakaolin in Supplementary Cementitious Material and Alkali-Activated Systems: A Review
Abstract
1. Introduction
2. Methods
- Formation of DK
- Hazardous Nature of DK
- Statistics on DK
- Pozzolanic Effect of DK
- Incorporation of DK as SCM in Portland Cement systems
- Incorporation of DK in Alkali activated cement systems:
- Incorporation of DK with Metakaolin
- Incorporation of DK with Water Treatment Sludge WTS
- Incorporation of DK with Slag (GGBS and EAFS)
3. Literature Review
3.1. Formation of DK
3.2. Statistics on DK
3.3. Hazardous Nature of DK
3.4. DK in Cements for Mortars and Concrete
3.4.1. Pozzolanic Activity
3.4.2. DK as SCM in Portland Cement-Based Concrete
3.4.3. DK in Alkali-Activated or Geopolymer Cement Systems
DK with Metakaolin
DK with Water Treatment Sludge
DK with Slag (GGBS and EAFS)
4. Discussion
Ref. | Precursor | Mix Design | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|
[36] | Cement + Two types of DK | Cement/Concrete + Two Types of DK: DK replacement by 10% and 15%; Cement content: 370 kg/m3 and 415 kg/m3; w/b: 0.43; Superplasticizer: 1% to 1.4% of binder. |
|
[35] | Cement + DK + Nano Carbon referred to as NCDK | Cement Mortar with: w/b ratio: 0.43; Sand to binder ratio: 2.25; DK replacement by 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%; Then DK is replaced by NC: 1% to 3%; Water-reducing agent is used. |
|
[43] | Cement + DK + TiO2 | Cement Pastes with: w/b ratio: 0.3; DK replacement by 10%, 30% and 50%; Another mix is prepared with 50% cement, 45% DK, and 5% TiO2; Superplasticizer: 0.45% to 1%. |
|
[28] | Concrete (cement + DK) | Concrete with: Two cement grades: 42.5 N and 52.5 N; Cement content: 350 Kg/m3 and 400 Kg/m3; w/b: 0.45; DK replacement/addition by 5% to 15%. |
|
[39] | Cement + DK | Cement Mortar with: w/b ratio: 0.65; Sand-to-binder ratio: 2.75; DK replacing sand by 0% to 22.5% by 2.5% interval. |
|
Ref. | Precursor | Mix Design | Key Findings |
---|---|---|---|
[16] | MK + DK. | Metakaolin mortar characteristics: NaOH activator is used described as: Na2O/Al2O3 = 1.2; H2O/Na2O = 10. DK is introduced as additive starting from 20% to 70% of the MK by 5% intervals. |
|
[18] | MK + DK | Metakaolin mortar characteristics: NaOH solution 50% concentration; Solution to precursor = 50%; Water Content: addition by 15%, 17.5%; DK is introduced as an added percentage starting from 0% to 60% of the MK by 10% intervals. |
|
[26] | GGBS + DK GBFS + FDK | Slag paste characteristics: w/b ratio: 0.25; NaOH wt.%: 3%; DK and FDK replacement by 10%, 20% and 30%. |
|
[27] | GGBS + DK | Slag mortar characteristics: Sand ratio: 2.75; a/B: 50% (including water in solution); Activator: 52% NaOH solution, waterglass; NaOH:Na2SiO3 = 1:0, 1:2, 1:2, and 1:3; DK replacement percentage starting from 0% to 60% by 10% intervals. |
|
[5] | EAFS + DK | Slag paste characteristics: w/b ratio: 0.21 to 0.24; Activators: waterglass + pellets NaOH; SiO2 = 0.5 mol/kg on all of mixes; Na2O = 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5 mol/kg; DK replacement by 10% to 50%. |
|
5. Conclusions and Future Directions
- 10–15% DK as SCM in cement systems enhances compressive strength by 15% to 30% but causes a dramatic reduction in flowability due to its fineness. Superplasticizers are therefore required in concrete mixes with DK used as SCM. Setting time was variably affected.
- DK used as SCM in cement systems led to enhanced concrete durability. However, further studies are still required to consolidate these findings.
- In AAC/geopolymer systems, DK performed best with MK or WTS but showed a poorer performance when partially replacing GGBS. With EAFS, late strength gains were observed, particularly after seawater exposure. In general, the available studies on DK lack diversity in mix designs, particularly with respect to AAC systems, and suitable AAC systems are yet to be developed for a consistent performance in terms of strength.
- AAC mix designs with modest DK contents were shown to enhance concrete durability, which concurs with findings using DK as SCM and aligns with microstructural observations.
Author Contributions
Funding
Institutional Review Board Statement
Informed Consent Statement
Data Availability Statement
Conflicts of Interest
References
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Elsebaei, M.; Mavroulidou, M.; Micheal, A.; Centeno, M.A.; Shamass, R.; Rispoli, O. Dealuminated Metakaolin in Supplementary Cementitious Material and Alkali-Activated Systems: A Review. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 8599. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158599
Elsebaei M, Mavroulidou M, Micheal A, Centeno MA, Shamass R, Rispoli O. Dealuminated Metakaolin in Supplementary Cementitious Material and Alkali-Activated Systems: A Review. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(15):8599. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158599
Chicago/Turabian StyleElsebaei, Mostafa, Maria Mavroulidou, Amany Micheal, Maria Astrid Centeno, Rabee Shamass, and Ottavia Rispoli. 2025. "Dealuminated Metakaolin in Supplementary Cementitious Material and Alkali-Activated Systems: A Review" Applied Sciences 15, no. 15: 8599. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158599
APA StyleElsebaei, M., Mavroulidou, M., Micheal, A., Centeno, M. A., Shamass, R., & Rispoli, O. (2025). Dealuminated Metakaolin in Supplementary Cementitious Material and Alkali-Activated Systems: A Review. Applied Sciences, 15(15), 8599. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158599