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Article

The Impact of Drilling Parameters on Drilling Temperature in High-Strength Steel Thin-Walled Parts

by
Yupu Zhang
1,2,
Ruyu Li
2,3,
Yihan Liu
2,4,
Chengwei Liu
2,
Shutao Huang
1,*,
Lifu Xu
1 and
Haicheng Shi
5
1
School of Mechanical Engineering, Shenyang Ligong University, Shenyang 110159, China
2
Graduate School, Shenyang Ligong University, Shenyang 110159, China
3
Innovation and Entrepreneurship Center, Shenyang Ligong University, Shenyang 110159, China
4
Engineering Practice Center, Shenyang Ligong University, Shenyang 110159, China
5
Liaoshen Industrial Group Co., Ltd., Shenyang 110045, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2025, 15(15), 8568; https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158568
Submission received: 12 February 2025 / Revised: 15 July 2025 / Accepted: 30 July 2025 / Published: 1 August 2025
(This article belongs to the Special Issue Machine Automation: System Design, Analysis and Control)
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Abstract

High-strength steel has high strength and low thermal conductivity, and its thin-walled parts are very susceptible to residual stress and deformation caused by cutting heat during the drilling process, which affects the machining accuracy and quality. High-strength steel thin-walled components are widely used in aerospace and other high-end sectors; however, systematic investigations into their temperature fields during drilling remain scarce, particularly regarding the evolution characteristics of the temperature field in thin-wall drilling and the quantitative relationship between drilling parameters and these temperature variations. This paper takes the thin-walled parts of AF1410 high-strength steel as the research object, designs a special fixture, and applies infrared thermography to measure the bottom surface temperature in the thin-walled drilling process in real time; this is carried out in order to study the characteristics of the temperature field during the thin-walled drilling process of high-strength steel, as well as the influence of the drilling dosage on the temperature field of the bottom surface. The experimental findings are as follows: in the process of thin-wall drilling of high-strength steel, the temperature field of the bottom surface of the workpiece shows an obvious temperature gradient distribution; before the formation of the drill cap, the highest temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece is distributed in the central circular area corresponding to the extrusion of the transverse edge during the drilling process, and the highest temperature of the bottom surface can be approximated as the temperature of the extrusion friction zone between the top edge of the drill and the workpiece when the top edge of the drill bit drills to a position close to the bottom surface of the workpiece and increases with the increase in the drilling speed and the feed volume; during the process of drilling, the highest temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece is approximated as the temperature of the top edge of the drill bit and the workpiece. The maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece in the drilling process increases nearly linearly with the drilling of the drill, and the slope of the maximum temperature increases nearly linearly with the increase in the drilling speed and feed, in which the influence of the feed on the slope of the maximum temperature increases is larger than that of the drilling speed.

1. Introduction

High-strength steel has the characteristics of high yield strength and tensile strength, high hardness, good plasticity, high fracture toughness, low thermal conductivity, etc.; however, it also faces problems due to its high cutting force and high cutting temperature during the cutting process. With excellent material properties, high-strength steel is widely used in various fields such as aviation [1,2,3], aerospace [4,5,6], energy [7,8], automotive [9,10,11], shipbuilding [12,13], industrial manufacturing [14,15,16,17], and construction [18,19]. Drilling is one of the important processes for thin-walled high-strength steel parts; due to the poor thermal conductivity of high-strength steel, the drilling process is very susceptible to the influence of cutting heat, resulting in residual stress and deformation, which not only affects the machining accuracy and quality of machining, but also affects the service life of the workpiece [16,20]. Therefore, it is of great importance to study the cutting temperature during the drilling process of thin-walled high-strength steel parts. The primary objective of this study is to characterize the evolution of the temperature field during thin-wall drilling and to establish a quantitative relationship between drilling parameters and these temperature variations.
Cutting dosage is the main factor affecting drilling temperature [21,22]. At present, many scholars have carried out research on the cutting temperature of high-strength steel hole machining. On study [23] conducted drilling experiments on AISI1045 high-strength steel under cooling conditions and measured the drilling temperature using K-type thermocouples, which showed that the drilling temperature increased with the increase in cutting speed, and decreased with the increase in feed. Another study [24] investigated the effects of the drill’s point angle, clearance angle, and helix angle on drilling temperature and axial force. The results showed that the helix angle of the drill has the greatest impact on drilling temperature, while the clearance angle has the least impact. This provides new ideas for tool selection. Another study [25] investigated the effect of the drilling dosage on the drilling temperature of 300M high-strength steel through simulation experiments, and the results show that the cutting temperature rises with the increase in spindle speed and feed. One study [26] combined simulation and experimental methods to study the drilling temperature of the AISI4340 high-strength steel drilling process, and the results show that the drilling temperature increases with the increase in spindle speed and feed. Other issues related to drilling of high-strength steel have also been explored in the existing literature: One study [27] proposed a helical milling scheme for hole making in thin Ti6Al4V titanium alloy plates, which significantly reduced cutting temperature and axial force. Another study [28,29] disclosed the impacts of vibration and deformation on cutting temperature, tool wear, and other factors during the machining of thin-walled components, as well as technical solutions for controlling vibrations to enhance stability and safety by using dampers with optimal structural dimensions in the machining system. A different study [30] employed a novel drill bit for thermal drilling which was able to significantly reduce axial force, and investigated the influence of spindle speed, feed rate, and workpiece thickness on the axial force during thermal drilling of thin-walled components. Another study [31] explored the hard drilling performance and machined surface integrity of 42CrMo steel under dry cutting, cold air, and liquid nitrogen (LN2) cooling conditions. The study found that LN2 cooling can significantly reduce cutting forces and temperature, substantially decrease thermal damage, and ensure machining surface quality and tool life. Previous studies have employed experimental or numerical approaches to investigate the drilling temperatures of several typical high-strength steels, uncovering some fundamental laws closely related to their thermal behaviour. However, AF1410 steel possesses distinctive properties, and for the specific application of drilling thin-walled AF1410 components, the influence of drilling parameters on temperature remains insufficiently addressed in the literature. This gap highlights the scientific value of the present study.
In summary, due to the difficulty of drilling temperature detection, although more studies on drilling temperature have been carried out through simulation and thermocouple measurement, there are still problems such as large differences in the actual drilling temperature, and there are fewer studies on the temperature change law of the drilling process of thin-walled parts made of high-strength steel and the impact of drilling dosage on the drilling temperature. Therefore, this paper takes the thin-walled parts made of AF1410 high-strength steel as the research object, and designs a specialized. Therefore, this paper takes AF1410 high-strength steel thin-walled parts as the research object, designs a special fixture, and carries out real-time dynamic observation of the temperature change on the bottom surface during thin-wall drilling by using infrared thermography. This paper focuses on the evolution of the temperature field on the bottom surface of AF1410 high-strength steel thin-walled workpieces during drilling under fixed constraints on two opposite edges, and investigates how varying drilling speeds and feed rates influence this temperature field.

2. Experimental Condition

2.1. The Material of the Test Specimen

The workpiece material used was AF1410 (16Co14Ni10Cr2Mo), a secondary hardening martensitic high-strength steel. The main chemical composition [32] and physical and mechanical properties [33] of AF1410 are given in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively. The overhang dimensions of the thin-walled workpiece selected for the experiment are as follows: length × width × thickness = 70 mm × 70 mm × 1.5 mm.

2.2. Temperature Measurement System for Drilling of Thin-Walled Workpieces

The experiments were carried out on a VMC850E vertical machining centre manufactured by Shenyang Machine Tool Co., Ltd. In order to facilitate the observation of temperature changes on the bottom surface of the drilled holes, a special fixture was used to fix the thin-walled workpiece surface vertically on the table, and an angular head was mounted on the main spindle of the vertical machining centre to convert the vertical machining into horizontal machining. A Fotric 388s infrared thermal imager was employed to monitor, in real time, the evolution of the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece during drilling. The camera was calibrated using the contact-thermometer method, yielding an adjusted emissivity of 0.3. The measurement accuracy of the Fotric 388s is ±1 °C or ±2% of the reading, whichever is larger, and its instantaneous field of view (IFOV) is 0.68 mrad. The infrared resolution is at least 640 × 480 pixels. The drilling force measurement system consisted of a Kistler9257B flatbed force measuring instrument, a Kistler5070A charge amplifier, a Kistler5697A data collector (Kistler, Winterthur, Switzerland), and a computer. The AF1410 steel thin-wall drilling temperature test system is shown in Figure 1.

2.3. Experimental Programme

Firstly, the bottom surface temperature field variation during the drilling of thin-walled parts of high-strength steel was investigated by fixing the cutting dosage; furthermore, the influence of the drilling dosage on drilling temperature was investigated using a one-way experimental method, and the parameters of spindle speed and feed were selected as shown in Table 3. All tests were conducted under dry-drilling conditions without coolant or lubricant. The workpiece was clamped along two opposite edges. The drill used was a SANDVIK carbide-coated drill, with a diameter of Φ8 mm, and an apex angle of 140°. The diameter of the top edge of the drill was about 3.2 mm, and the height of the tip of the drill was 1.4 mm. The structure of the drill is shown in Figure 2.

3. Variation in the Temperature Field on the Bottom Surface of the Workpiece During the Drilling of Thin-Walled Workpieces

3.1. Correlation Between Axial Force and Maximum Bottom-Surface Temperature of the Workpiece During Thin-Wall Drilling

Drilling experiments were carried out on AF1410 thin-walled workpieces under the conditions of spindle speed n = 1250 r/min (cutting speed vc = 31.4 m/min) and feed f = 0.025 mm/r. The change curves of axial force and maximum temperature of the bottom surface in the drilling process with the drilling time are shown in Figure 3, and the comparison of theoretical and actual characteristic positions of the tool and the workpieces in the drilling process are shown in Figure 4. The comparison of theoretical and actual feature point positions of the tool and workpiece during the drilling process is shown in Figure 4.
In Figure 3, the vertical black dashed lines represent the theoretical positions (moments) of the drill bit and the workpiece characteristic points without considering workpiece deformation. The multiple vertical black lines in Figure 3, from left to right, correspond to the following positions in Figure 4a: the chisel edge of the drill bit just begins to contact the upper surface of the workpiece (Position A), the intersection of the drill bit’s primary and secondary cutting edges reaches the upper surface of the workpiece (Position B), the chisel edge of the drill bit reaches the bottom surface of the workpiece (Position C), the intersection of the drill bit’s primary and secondary cutting edges reaches the bottom surface of the workpiece (Position D), and the drill bit completely exits the bottom surface of the workpiece (Position E). Theoretically, there are two situations that could occur: the axial force is at its maximum and remains relatively stable when the drill tip has completely entered the upper surface of the workpiece but has not yet exited the bottom surface; the axial force will become 0 when the intersection of the drill bit’s primary and secondary cutting edges reaches the bottom surface of the workpiece.
From Figure 3, it can be seen that the axial force and the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece change curve; moreover, the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece increases to nearly linear growth to the maximum temperature and begins to show a downward trend. The axial force, before reaching the maximum value, experiences a change with different characteristics, reaching the maximum value at rapid decline until 0. The maximum actual axial force lags behind the maximum theoretical axial force at characteristic stage B-C; the actual drilling time lags by about 0.7 s compared to the theoretical drilling. The actual drilling time lags behind the theoretical drilling time by about 0.7 s. Comparing the time points of maximum axial force and maximum temperature of the bottom surface, it can be seen that the maximum temperature of the bottom surface slightly lags behind the point of maximum axial force.
Since the workpiece being machined is a thin-walled plate with low stiffness, during actual drilling, the chisel edge of the drill bit does not immediately penetrate the workpiece after contacting the upper surface of the workpiece (Position A). As the drill bit feeds, the drill bit, which has not truly penetrated the thin-walled plate, exerts force on the plate, causing local elastic outward deformation. The axial force also increases linearly during this process, which corresponds to the A-A’ stage in Figure 3b. Subsequently, the drill bit begins to penetrate the workpiece, and as the length of the primary cutting edge that has penetrated increases, the axial force increases approximately linearly with a smaller slope until the chisel edge of the drill bit reaches the bottom surface of the workpiece. This process corresponds to the A’-C’ stage in Figure 3b. After that, the chisel edge of the drill bit starts to protrude towards the exit side of the bottom surface of the workpiece. Under the action of the chisel edge, the material below the chisel edge undergoes local plastic outward deformation, and the axial force increases sharply during this process. The axial force reaches its maximum at the Fmax point, which corresponds to the C’-Fmax stage in Figure 3b. An important characteristic of this stage is that the material below the drill bit undergoes local plastic deformation, thereby forming a drill cap (as shown in Figure 5). In the final stage, after the intersection of the primary and secondary cutting edges of the drill bit completely exits the bottom surface of the workpiece, the axial force quickly drops to 0 (the moment when the axial force is 0 corresponds to Position D’ in Figure 4b).

3.2. Characteristics of the Workpiece Bottom-Surface Temperature Field During Thin-Wall Drilling

The temperature field variation on the bottom surface of the workpiece during the drilling process is shown in Figure 6, where the curve plot shows the temperature distribution along the radial direction of the workpiece; point 0 in the plot is the centre of the drilled hole, from which it can be seen that the highest temperatures of the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece occurred at the centre of the drilled hole before the drill bit drilled out the drill cap and fractured it. In order to highlight the temperature field and line temperature map changes due to drilling, based on the size of the temperature field spread area, Figure 6, Figure 7 and Figure 9 show a screenshot of the temperature field symmetrically located at the centre of the drill hole with a length × width of 23 mm × 23 mm. Since the layer to be machined below the intersection point of the main and secondary cutting edges is thicker before the drill reaches point C’, and the elastic recovery of the workpiece during the drilling process is small, in order to facilitate the calculation, the screenshot of point C’ in the temperature field diagram in this paper is taken as the position recorded in the temperature field diagram without considering the rebound of the drill after drilling into the workpiece. This position is intercepted at the time of the axial stroke of the drill, which is equal to the thickness of the workpiece, by taking the actual start point when drilling into the workpiece surface at point A’ as the starting point.
The previous drilling process of high-strength steel, in combination with thin-walled plate deformation and characteristic point analysis, can be seen in Figure 6. The top edge of the drill bit is able to contact the upper surface of the workpiece until the drill bit is drilled into the workpiece; the elasticity of the workpiece leads to convex deformation, and the top edge of the upper surface of the workpiece leads to extrusion friction. The top edge of the drill bit has a small diameter; thus, linear velocity is small, the initial generation of the cutting heat is relatively small, and the tip of the drill bit is farther away from the bottom surface of the workpiece, meaning that less heat is transferred to the bottom surface. As a result, the temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece is relatively low. Because of the small diameter of the top edge of the drill, the linear velocity is small, the cutting heat generated is reduced at the beginning, and the tip of the drill is far away from the bottom surface of the workpiece. Moreover, the heat transferred to the bottom surface is reduced; thus, the temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece is lower, and the temperature only increases slightly in the corresponding range of the diameter of the top edge. The change in the temperature gradient is very small, as shown in Figure 6a. Under the feed rate of the drill, the axial force of the top edge of the drill increases when placed against the workpiece, and the heat generated by the extrusion and friction of the top edge increases, forming a circular maximum temperature zone within the radius of the top edge, which is about 83 °C; the heat is transmitted along the radial direction to form an annular temperature field distribution, as shown in Figure 6b.
After the drill starts drilling into the workpiece, with the drilling and feeding of the drill, the drill tip gradually approaches the bottom surface of the workpiece, the temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece increases. At the same time, the heat is transmitted along the radial direction, and the temperature field has an obvious circular gradient distribution; the change in the temperature field of the bottom surface of the workpiece at this stage is shown in Figure 6c–f. The round white area in the figure is the middle extrusion friction area dominated by the top edge extrusion friction action, which has the highest temperature of the workpiece. This is because the top edge is straight, the distance between each point of the top edge and the bottom surface of the workpiece is consistent, the temperature range is more stable—basically consistent with the cross edge action area—and the temperature of the top edge action area is relatively straight, as shown in the line temperature diagram. In addition, the temperature is more straight on the bottom surface of the workpiece, and the highest temperature is in the corresponding round area of the top edge of the bit with the drill in. As the drill bit progresses, the temperature of the circular area corresponding to the top edge of the drill bit rises from 83 °C to 344.3 °C (Figure 6f); when the top edge of the drill bit reaches the position of C’, the temperature of the bottom surface of the drill bit can be approximated as the temperature of the top edge of the drill bit in the extrusion friction zone of the drill bit and the workpiece. This is because of the difference in the bottom surface of the drill bit, along with the fact that the workpiece is only a very small distance from the thickness of the drilling cap (about 344.3 °C). The ring area around the middle extrusion friction area is the area where the main cutting edge is involved, and its temperature is slightly lower than that of the middle extrusion friction area. Since the top angle of the main cutting edge of the drill is 140°, according to the distances between each point of the main cutting edge and the bottom surface, it has a linear distribution on the bottom surface of the workpiece, as shown in the line temperature diagrams in Figure 6c–f. Due to thermal conduction, the slope of the line temperature map in the cutting area of the main cutting edge is smaller than the slope of the main cutting edge; the periphery of the cutting area is the heat diffusion area. At this stage, with the feed of the drill, the length of the main cutting edge increases, and the annular area of the cutting zone increases; meanwhile, the area of the heat diffusion zone also expands gradually.
The temperature field changes on the bottom surface of the workpiece during the drill cap formation stage, corresponding to position C’ in Figure 4b, are shown in Figure 6f–k. During the formation of the drill cap, the primary cutting edge gradually protrudes beyond the contour of the bottom surface of the workpiece, shifting from primarily cutting to mainly rotating and compressing the drill cap through friction. The high-temperature area at the centre of the drill cap, which is tightly pressed and frictioned by the drill bit’s chisel edge, gradually expands. Since the drill cap is relatively thin, the heat conduction and distribution are relatively uniform. The temperature gradient changes in the tightly pressed friction areas corresponding to the chisel edge and primary cutting edge are minimal, which can also be seen from the temperature line graphs: the central high-temperature area is relatively flat. During this machining stage, the highest temperature in the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece significantly increases, reaching up to 401.6 °C. From Figure 6h,i, it can be seen that in the subsequent stages, the moment when the temperature field of the bottom surface of the workpiece reaches its highest temperature is slightly delayed compared to the moment when the axial force reaches its maximum value (with a delay of approximately 0.06 s). This is because when the axial force reaches its maximum value—that is, when the intersection of the drill bit’s primary and secondary cutting edges is about to exit the bottom surface (which is also when the residual annular material undergoes plastic outward deformation)—there is a time lag for the cutting heat to be transferred to the bottom surface of the workpiece and affect the temperature field. It is worth noting that the highest temperatures in the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece in Figure 6h,i are essentially the same. When the drilling axial force reaches its maximum value, the intersection of the drill bit’s primary and secondary cutting edges is at the critical point of transitioning from cutting to compressing the workpiece, and it is also close to the bottom surface of the workpiece. The temperature at the edge of the drilled hole at this time can be approximated as the cutting temperature of the drill bit edge on the workpiece, which is about 400.1 °C. From Figure 6j,k, it can be seen that after the bottom surface of the workpiece reaches its highest temperature, the highest temperature in the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece begins to decrease, albeit at a relatively slow rate.
Corresponding to Figure 6i–k, after the drill cap is formed, cracks appear on its top, and the highest temperature at the centre of the drill cap slightly decreases. Subsequently, when the intersection of the drill bit’s primary and secondary cutting edges exits the bottom surface of the workpiece and the drill cap separates and breaks off from the workpiece, the middle circular area in the drilling region of the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece can only approximately reflect the drill bit temperature. Obviously, since the clamping friction action of the drill bit on the drill cap stops at this time, the drill bit temperature is lower than the residual drill cap temperature on the bottom surface of the workpiece. As the cutting time continues to extend, the size of the heat diffusion region further increases. The radial temperature gradient of the temperature field, which gradually cools down in the radial direction from the edge of the hole outward, becomes significantly smaller.

4. Effect of Drilling Dosage on the Temperature During Thin-Wall Drilling

The effect of cutting speed on drilling temperature was investigated by varying the spindle speed (n = 500 r/min, n = 750 r/min, n = 1000 r/min, n = 1250 r/min, n = 1500 r/min) at a feed rate of f = 0.025 mm/r. The temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece at different drilling speeds with the drill at four different characteristic positions A’, C’, Fmax and Tmax in Figure 3 and Figure 4 is shown in Figure 7.
As can be seen from Figure 7, the change in the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece during the drilling process is generally consistent with the previous analysis. From the location of the maximum axial force, at vc ≤ 18.84 m/min (n ≤ 750 r/min), the maximum cutting force point Fmax ahead of the top edge of the drill bit is drilling into the bottom surface of the workpiece at the point C’. This is mainly because the cutting speed is small, the cutting temperature is low, the workpiece cutting zone softening degree is small, and the drilling edge of the yielding deformation of the thickness of the flange is small; thus, the maximum cutting force occurs entirely along the main cutting edge. The maximum cutting force occurs when the main cutting edge is completely drilled into the workpiece, and the top edge is not yet drilled out of the bottom surface. This can also be seen from the distribution of the temperature field when the axial force reaches the maximum point Fmax, as shown in Figure 7. When vc ≤ 18.84 m/min (n ≤ 750 r/min), the high-temperature region is small, reflecting the extrusion friction region of the top edge; while vc ≥ 25.12 m/min (n ≥ 1000 r/min), the high-temperature region is large, including the extrusion friction of the top edge and the main cutting edge on the drill cap. From the characteristics of temperature field distribution, when the maximum temperature is reached on the bottom surface of the workpiece, as shown in Figure 7, the distribution of the maximum temperature is relatively flat at vc ≥ 18.84 m/min (n ≥ 750 r/min), and the distribution area is close to the diameter of the drilled hole. From the diffusion of the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece, the lower the drilling speed, the larger the heat diffusion area on the bottom surface of the workpiece. The higher the drilling speed, the smaller the area of the heat diffusion zone in the drilling process; the width of the distribution of the various temperature bands becomes significantly smaller, and the temperature gradient increases. On the one hand, the low drilling speed produces less heat; on the other hand, the low drilling speed makes the heat diffusion time longer. Thus, the heat diffusion area on the bottom surface of the workpiece becomes larger.
From the temperature field diagram in Figure 7, the influence of drilling speed on the maximum temperature when the drill is in the four characteristic positions of A’, C’, Fmax and Tmax is shown in Figure 8. It can be seen that the maximum temperature of the drilling centre on the bottom surface of the workpiece when the drill is in the four characteristic positions of A’, C’, Fmax and Tmax increases with the increase in drilling speed. Among these positions, the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece increases with the increase in cutting speed. This occurs to a smaller extent at the position of A’ when the top edge of the drill has not yet drilled into the surface of the workpiece. Previous analysis showed that the temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece at point A’ is mainly caused by the heat conduction generated by the extrusion friction of the top edge of the drill bit on the surface of the workpiece. This is due to the small diameter of the top edge of the drill bit. The magnitude of the heat generated by it is also limited. The geometry of each of the specimens within the experiment is the same, and the heat conduction rule is the same; thus, the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece when the drill bit is in point A’ is small. Therefore, when the drill is in the characteristic position of A’, the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece increases less with the increase in drill speed. The change in the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece when the drill is at point C’ shows a better consistency with the change in drilling speed when the drill is at point A. The temperature at point C’ is the same temperature as when the top edge of the drill actually drills into the bottom surface of the workpiece. Since the thickness of the corresponding surface of the workpiece is very thin at this time, the size of the temperature is mainly reflective of the heat generated from the friction of the top edge of the drill on the workpiece by the extrusion of the top edge of the drill. This is affected by the cumulative conduction of the drilling process, but it is not the same as that of the bottom edge. Although it is affected by the accumulated heat transfer of the drilling process, it is in good agreement with the change trend of the drill at point A’, which also fully demonstrates its credibility in representing the temperature of the top edge of the drill and the workpiece extrusion friction area during the drilling process. When the rotational speed of the drill was increased from 500 r/min to 1500 r/min, the temperature of the top cutting edge of the drill (the temperature of the top cutting edge when the drill was in the position of point C’) increased from 219.6 °C to 363.4 °C during the drilling process. From Figure 7, it can be seen that the maximum temperatures at the two characteristic position points—when the axial force reaches a maximum of Fmax and the bottom surface temperature reaches s maximum of Tmax—differ only slightly, and the change in drilling speed is consistent. Previous analysis shows that when vc ≥ 25.12 m/min (n ≥ 1000 r/min), the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece in the drilling process and the time of the maximum axial force do not differ much. This basically occurs at the time when the drill cap is formed completely, not yet separated from the workpiece cutting, and the top of the cap is not cracked; moreover, the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece at this time not only contains the heat generated by the top cutting edge extrusion and friction, but also the heat generated by rear face of the main cutting edge . When the heat generated by the extrusion friction on the back face of the cutting edge is also included in the main cutting edge, the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece is higher than the maximum temperature of the drill bit at the position of C’; the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece is increased from 221.3 °C to 425 °C during the process of drilling, and when the rotational speed of the drill bit is increased from 500 r/min to 1500 r/min. At vc ≤ 18.84 m/min (n ≤ 750 r/min), the position for generating the maximum axial force Fmax is far ahead of the position for generating the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of workpiece (Tmax); moreover, the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece at the position of the maximum axial force Fmax of the drill bit is lower than that of the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece during the drilling process Tmax.
The variation curves of the maximum temperature on the bottom surface of the workpiece during drilling at different cutting speeds (spindle speeds) are shown in Figure 9. It can be seen from Figure 9 that the results are consistent with the changes in the temperature field at different moments during the drilling process shown in Figure 7: the moment when the maximum temperature on the bottom surface of the workpiece appears is delayed compared to the time when the maximum axial drilling force is reached. At different drilling speeds, the maximum temperature on the bottom surface of the workpiece increases linearly with the continuous progress of cutting before reaching its maximum value. The effect of different spindle speeds on the increasing slope of the maximum temperature on the bottom surface of the workpiece is shown in Figure 10. It can be seen from the figure that the increasing slope of the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece during the drilling process increases linearly with the increase in the drilling speed.

Influence Law of Feed Volume on the Bottom Surface Temperature of Thin-Wall Drilling Process

At the rotational speed n = 750 r/min, the effect of feed rate on the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece was investigated by changing the feed rate (f = 0.01 mm/r, f = 0.025 mm/r, f = 0.05 mm/r, f = 0.075 mm/r, f = 0.1 mm/r), and the temperature field of the bottom surface of the workpiece was investigated by changing the feed rates (f = 0.01 mm/r, f = 0.025 mm/r, f = 0.05 mm/r, f = 0.075 mm/r, f = 0.1 mm/r). Tmax is shown at different characteristic positions in Figure 3 and Figure 4.
Regarding the location where the maximum axial force is generated, it can be seen from Figure 11 that when f = 0.01∼0.1 mm/r, the moment when Fmax appears is generally delayed compared to point C’, with only one exception: when f = 0.025 mm/r, the Fmax point precedes point C’. As shown in Figure 7 and related analysis, when vc = 18.84 m/min (n = 750 r/min) and f = 0.025 mm/r, the cutting temperature is relatively low, the softening degree of the workpiece cutting area is small, and the thickness of the yielding and outward deformation at the hole edge is small. The maximum cutting force occurs when the primary cutting edge is completely drilled into the workpiece, and the chisel edge has not yet exited the bottom surface. When f ≥ 0.05 mm/r, the reason why the Fmax point is delayed compared to point C’ is that the yielding and outward deformation of the hole edge when the intersection of the primary and secondary cutting edges is about to exit the bottom surface of the workpiece results in an axial force which is greater than that when the primary cutting edge is completely drilled into the workpiece. When f = 0.01 mm/r, the main reason why the Fmax point is delayed compared to point C’ is that due to the existence of the cutting edge radius, the primary cutting edge of the drill bit is limited by the minimum cutting thickness when f = 0.01 mm/r. The compression effect on the workpiece is greater, generating more frictional heat, which softens the material in the cutting area and causes yielding and outward deformation of the hole edge when the intersection of the primary and secondary cutting edges is about to exit the bottom surface of the workpiece.
Figure 12 shows the variation in the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece in accordance with feed rate, specifically when the drill bit is at the four characteristic positions of A’, C’, Fmax, and Tmax under different feed conditions. It can be seen that, overall, the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece increases with the increase in feed rate when the drill bit is at different characteristic positions, but this increase is less pronounced than the increase caused by cutting speed. When f = 0.1 mm/r, the temperatures at points A’ and C’ are slightly lower than those at f = 0.075 mm/r. This is mainly because with a larger feed rate, the chips are larger and carry away more heat.
From the change in the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece in the drilling process, the influence of the feed volume on the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece in the drilling process is not significant; moreover, the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece in the drilling process increases from 327.8 °C to 365.6 °C when the feed volume increases from 0.01 mm/r to 0.1 mm/r. The combined result is that the cutting thickness increases with the increase in cutting energy consumption, and the heat carried away by the chips increases accordingly. On the one hand, when the increase in the feed amount of cutting energy consumption increases, the heat generated increases; on the other hand, the increase in the feed amount means that the cutting thickness increases. The heat carried away by the chips increases accordingly. The result of this is that the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece increases during the drilling process with the increase in the feed amount, the magnitude of this increase is not large.
The maximum temperature change when the axial force reaches the characteristic position of the maximum value Tmax is basically the same as the maximum temperature change in the drilling process; this only differs at f = 0.025 mm/r, which is mainly caused by the different positions where the maximum value of the axial force occurs at f = 0.025 mm/r.
The maximum temperature change curves of the drilling process under different feeds are shown in Figure 13, and it can be seen that the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpieces in the drilling process are all linearly increasing (without considering the descending stages of drilling completion, cap rupture and removal). The effect of feed on the slope of the rising phase of the maximum temperature change curve of the drilling process is shown in Figure 14. It can be seen that the rate of temperature rise increases nearly linearly with the increase in feed, and the effect of the feed rate is greater than that of the drilling speed.

5. Conclusions

The distribution and change characteristics of temperature field on the bottom surface in the thin-wall drilling process of AF1410 high-strength steel were investigated through single-factor experiments. The influence of the drilling dosage on the drilling temperature was also explored, and the main conclusions were as follows:
(1)
During the thin-wall drilling process of high-strength steel, the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece shows an obvious circular gradient distribution. With the continuous feeding of the drill, before reaching the highest temperature of the bottom surface, the temperature of the middle extrusion friction zone is the highest, and the area does not change much, remaining almost the same as that of the cross-cutting edge. While the cutting area increases with the length of the main cutting edge involved in cutting, the annular area of the cutting zone increases; and at the same time, the area of the heat diffusion zone is also gradually enlarged. When the top edge of the drill bit reaches the C’ position near the bottom surface of the workpiece, the maximum temperature of the bottom surface can be approximated as the temperature of the top edge of the drill bit and the workpiece extrusion friction area. The maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece is the highest in the whole drilling process when the drill cap is formed and not yet ruptured.
(2)
The temperature of the top flank zone of the drill bit (the temperature of the top flank zone when the drill bit was at the C’ point) increased with the increase in drilling speed and feed, and the temperature of the top flank zone of the drill bit increased from 219.6 °C to 363.4 °C when the drilling speed was increased from 12.56 m/min to 37.68 m/min; the temperature of the top flank zone of the drill bit increased from 237.4 °C to 302.1 °C when the feed increased from 0.01 mm/r to 0.075 mm/r, and decreased slightly to 295.1 °C when f = 0.1 mm/r. When the feed was increased from 0.01 mm/r to 0.075 mm/r, the temperature of the top edge zone of the drill bit increased from 237.4 °C to 302.1 °C, and slightly decreased to 295.5 °C at f = 0.1 mm/r.
(3)
The temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece during the drilling process has the same rule of change—in general, at different speeds and feeds, the maximum temperature on the bottom surface of the workpiece increases nearly linearly with the drill bit during the drilling process, and the slope of the increase in the maximum temperature increases nearly linearly with the improvement of the drilling speed and the feed. Thus, the influence of the feed on the slope of the maximum temperature increase is larger than that of the drilling speed.
(4)
Compared with existing studies, this work presents, for the first time, the distribution and evolution of the temperature field on the bottom surface of AF1410 high-strength steel thin-walled parts during drilling. While confirming the general rule that drilling temperature is influenced by cutting speed and feed rate, the study further quantifies—taking the specific properties of AF1410 steel into account—the effects of varying cutting speeds and feed rates on the bottom-surface temperature field. These findings lay a solid foundation for future investigations into the drilling of high-strength steel thin-walled components.

6. Limitations and Potential Biases

The present study obtained temperature data by observing the temperature field on the underside (drill-exit side) of AF1410 high-strength steel thin-wall plates. The investigation focused on the influence of cutting speed (vc = 12.56–31.4 m min−1) and feed rate (f = 0.01–0.10 mm rev−1) on drilling temperature. The results indicate that significant stress concentration, vibration, and deformation occur during drilling of thin-wall plates, and that optimizing cutting parameters (especially cutting speed and feed) markedly mitigates these effects. However, due to limited experimental resources and time, the following limitations are acknowledged:
The impacts of stress concentration, vibration, and deformation on drilling temperature were not explicitly considered in the experimental design or data analysis. Experiments were restricted to AF1410 steel and the specific parameter ranges tested; the findings may not fully represent other materials or cutting conditions. The influence of the fixture on heat transfer was not quantified. Measurement accuracy may be affected by the precision limits of the infrared thermal imager and the adopted measurement scheme. The limited number of experimental samples could compromise the statistical significance of the results.

7. Future Work/Research Plans

(1)
Increase the number of experimental repetitions and apply statistical analyses (e.g., mean, standard deviation) to obtain more objective and accurate data, thereby verifying both obvious and latent physical laws.
(2)
Carry out a more comprehensive study of the factors that influence drilling temperature in thin-walled high-strength steel drilling, including deformation, stress and strain, vibration, tool selection, alternative machining strategies, the thermal-conductive effect of fixtures, and edge effects arising from the geometry of thin-walled parts.
(3)
Given the spatial-resolution limitations of the current infrared camera, a higher-performance thermal imager will be adopted to measure the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece. In parallel, embedded thermocouples and other temperature-measurement techniques will be employed, and the experimental data will be cross-validated with finite-element simulations. Ultimately, recommendations will be provided on the most suitable temperature-measurement approach for drilling thin-walled high-strength steel, along with practical guidelines on feasible drilling parameters and optimal cutting conditions tailored to different machining requirements.

Author Contributions

The authors confirm contribution to the paper as follows: Conceptualization, Y.Z.; methodology, Y.Z. and S.H.; software, Y.Z.; validation, Y.Z., R.L., Y.L. and C.L.; formal analysis, Y.Z.; data curation, Y.Z., L.X. and H.S.; writing—original draft preparation, Y.Z.; writing—review and editing, S.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This work has received funding from the key technology research and development project “Unveiling the List and Leading the Way” in the Science and Technology Bureau of Shenyang, Liaoning Province.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors on request.

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank all the teachers and students in the laboratory for your help and valuable suggestions during the research process. The cooperation and discussion with you greatly promoted the progress of the research, and I thank you for your efforts and support.

Conflicts of Interest

Author Haicheng Shi was employed by Liaoshen Industrial Group Co., Ltd. The remaining authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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Applsci 15 08568 g001
Figure 1. AF1410 steel thin-wall drilling temperature test system.
Figure 1. AF1410 steel thin-wall drilling temperature test system.
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Figure 2. Drill bit photos.
Figure 2. Drill bit photos.
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Figure 3. Variation curve of axial force and maximum surface temperature of the workpiece drilled (n = 1250 r/min, vc = 31.4 m/min, f = 0.025 mm/r).
Figure 3. Variation curve of axial force and maximum surface temperature of the workpiece drilled (n = 1250 r/min, vc = 31.4 m/min, f = 0.025 mm/r).
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Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the characteristic stages of drilling thin-walled plates of high-strength steel.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram of the characteristic stages of drilling thin-walled plates of high-strength steel.
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Figure 5. Morphology of drill cap formed by drilling the thin-walled plate of high-strength steel.
Figure 5. Morphology of drill cap formed by drilling the thin-walled plate of high-strength steel.
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Figure 6. Temperature field variation in the drilled surface of the workpiece (n = 1250 r/min, vc = 31.4 m/min, f = 0.025 mm/r).
Figure 6. Temperature field variation in the drilled surface of the workpiece (n = 1250 r/min, vc = 31.4 m/min, f = 0.025 mm/r).
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Figure 7. Variation in the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece at different moments under various drilling speeds.
Figure 7. Variation in the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece at different moments under various drilling speeds.
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Figure 8. The maximum temperature variation in the surface of the workpiece at the centre and edge under different spindle speeds.
Figure 8. The maximum temperature variation in the surface of the workpiece at the centre and edge under different spindle speeds.
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Figure 9. Curves of the maximum temperature on the bottom surface of the workpiece at different spindle speeds.
Figure 9. Curves of the maximum temperature on the bottom surface of the workpiece at different spindle speeds.
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Figure 10. The effect of spindle speed on the rate of increase in the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece.
Figure 10. The effect of spindle speed on the rate of increase in the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece.
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Figure 11. Variation in the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece under different feed rates.
Figure 11. Variation in the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece under different feed rates.
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Figure 12. Variation in the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece in accordance with the feed when the drill is in different feature positions.
Figure 12. Variation in the maximum temperature of the bottom surface of the workpiece in accordance with the feed when the drill is in different feature positions.
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Figure 13. Curves of the maximum temperature of the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece under different feed rates.
Figure 13. Curves of the maximum temperature of the temperature field on the bottom surface of the workpiece under different feed rates.
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Figure 14. Influence of feed rate on the rate of increase in the maximum temperature on the bottom surface of the workpiece during drilling.
Figure 14. Influence of feed rate on the rate of increase in the maximum temperature on the bottom surface of the workpiece during drilling.
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Table 1. Chemical composition of AF1410 steel [32].
Table 1. Chemical composition of AF1410 steel [32].
ElementalCCoCrMoSiMnPS
mass fraction/%0.1613.831.951.040.010.020.0060.001
Table 2. Some physical and mechanical properties of AF1410 steel [33].
Table 2. Some physical and mechanical properties of AF1410 steel [33].
Physical Property IndexNumerical Value
Density ρ (kg/m3)7860
Modulus of elasticity (GPa)203
Yield strength σ0.2 (MPa)1580
Thermal conductivity (W/mK)27.8
Specific heat capacity (J·kg−1K−1)490
Poisson’s ratio μ0.29
Tensile strength σ (MPa)1700
Melting temperature (K)1623~1695
Table 3. Experimental plan.
Table 3. Experimental plan.
Drilling VolumeNumerical Value
Feed rate (mm/r)0.01, 0.025, 0.05, 0.075, 0.1
Spindle speed (r/min)500/12.6, 750/18.8, 1000/25.1
/Cutting speed (m/min)1250/31.4, 1500/37.7
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MDPI and ACS Style

Zhang, Y.; Li, R.; Liu, Y.; Liu, C.; Huang, S.; Xu, L.; Shi, H. The Impact of Drilling Parameters on Drilling Temperature in High-Strength Steel Thin-Walled Parts. Appl. Sci. 2025, 15, 8568. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158568

AMA Style

Zhang Y, Li R, Liu Y, Liu C, Huang S, Xu L, Shi H. The Impact of Drilling Parameters on Drilling Temperature in High-Strength Steel Thin-Walled Parts. Applied Sciences. 2025; 15(15):8568. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158568

Chicago/Turabian Style

Zhang, Yupu, Ruyu Li, Yihan Liu, Chengwei Liu, Shutao Huang, Lifu Xu, and Haicheng Shi. 2025. "The Impact of Drilling Parameters on Drilling Temperature in High-Strength Steel Thin-Walled Parts" Applied Sciences 15, no. 15: 8568. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158568

APA Style

Zhang, Y., Li, R., Liu, Y., Liu, C., Huang, S., Xu, L., & Shi, H. (2025). The Impact of Drilling Parameters on Drilling Temperature in High-Strength Steel Thin-Walled Parts. Applied Sciences, 15(15), 8568. https://doi.org/10.3390/app15158568

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