Next Article in Journal
A Combined Semantic Dependency and Lexical Embedding RoBERTa Model for Grid Field Relational Extraction
Previous Article in Journal
Remaining Useful Life Prediction Method for High Temperature Blades of Gas Turbines Based on 3D Reconstruction and Machine Learning Techniques
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 13
Issue 19
10.3390/app131911075
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Application of Perennial Sweet Pea in Soil and Water Conservation

by
Lin Shi
1,
Chenyang Dai
1,2,* and
Sreetheran Maruthaveeran
1
1
Department of Landscape Architecture, Faculty of Design & Architecture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
2
Department of Design, Faculty of Arts, Hebei University of Economics & Business, Shijiazhuang 050061, China
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2023, 13(19), 11075; https://doi.org/10.3390/app131911075
Submission received: 12 September 2023 / Revised: 27 September 2023 / Accepted: 28 September 2023 / Published: 8 October 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Environmental Sciences)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
To address the issue of soil erosion and limited economically valuable vegetation resources, perennial sweet peas were introduced to Hebei Province, China, and showed favorable biological attributes. Nevertheless, its specific efficacy within soil and water conservation endeavors requires further examination. This study selected four trial sites within Hebei Province to assess four-year-old perennial sweet peas’ soil and water conservation functionality. The findings underscored that cultivating perennial sweet pea plots on 9° disturbed slopes notably outperformed bare ground (CK) in their rainwater absorption capacity. Specifically, in the 0–20 cm soil layer, moisture increased from 10.51% to 17.39%, in the 20–40 cm layer from 10.63% to 17.25%, and in the 40–60 cm layer from 10.09% to 16.04%. The dense canopy formed by perennial sweet peas effectively intercepted 25–32% of precipitation. Fallen organic matter also demonstrated commendable water absorption features. During severe rain, the perennial sweet pea showcased a 90.4% runoff reduction and a notable sediment interception. Their deep and well-developed root system enhanced soil structure and infiltration. The outcomes of this study highlight the perennial sweet peas’ potential in soil erosion mitigation, rainwater retention, and soil improvement, which carries substantial implications for sustainable land management and ecosystem restoration initiatives. Furthermore, the successful introduction of perennial sweet peas could serve as a model for analogous ecological interventions in regions confronting similar challenges, offering holistic solutions to soil and water conservation in environmentally sensitive areas.

1. Introduction

Water is the source of life, while soil forms the bedrock of existence. Soil erosion, a global environmental threat, leads to regional impoverishment and hampers societal advancement, thereby constraining sustainable regional development [1,2]. Recognizing its gravity, the United Nations has designated it a primary global environmental priority. China stands out among nations grappling with soil erosion [3], with Hebei Province bearing a significant burden [4]. The surge of human civilization, industrialization, and rapid urbanization escalates surface disturbances and exacerbates vegetation degradation, culminating in aggravated soil erosion [2,5]. This erosive process further triggers soil degradation, diminished crop yields, and ecological deterioration, which pose grave challenges to socioeconomic progress and human well-being [1,2,6]. As a result, combating soil erosion and establishing a stable, self-sustaining ecosystem have emerged as pivotal imperatives in contemporary global environmental conservation.
Several studies underscore the pivotal role of soil and water conservation measures in mitigating soil erosion, with tangible successes in practical applications [6,7,8,9]. For instance, Abiye (2022) provided a comprehensive review of Ethiopia’s agricultural practices, such as mixed cropping, strip planting, fallowing, intercropping, crop rotation, mulching, contour farming, tillage, and agroforestry, and their roles in soil and water conservation [6]. Kassam et al. (2014) summarized the achievements of conservation agriculture in soil and water conservation [9]. The crux of soil and water conservation hinges on adopting a spectrum of measures, including prevention or reduction of soil erosion, compaction, salinization, as well as water-saving and drainage practices, all aimed at restoring or enhancing the productive potential of degraded lands, encompassing soil, water resources, and vegetation components [10,11,12,13,14]. In ecological protection, soil and water conservation assumes an irreplaceable role. By safeguarding soil and water bodies, ameliorating the impacts of natural disasters, and augmenting biodiversity, soil and water conservation bolsters the well-being of natural ecosystems and fosters conducive conditions for the sustainable development of human societies [2].
Vegetation establishment is pivotal in ecological engineering as a critical linkage to harmonize environmental and developmental goals [15]. Studies conducted by Abdi et al. (2019) and Deljouei et al. (2023) have substantiated soil bioengineering via the roots method in mitigating soil erosion [16,17]. This strategy, anchored in augmenting vegetative cover, leverages plant root systems to anchor soil effectively, reducing splash erosion, curtailing surface runoff, and elevating soil permeability [6,16,17]. Concurrently, the plant canopy disperses rainfall across its leaf surfaces, thus decelerating the direct impact of raindrops and preparing to intercept precipitation [18,19]. This process aids in preventing soil particles from being dislodged and eroded by rainwater, consequently mitigating the risk of soil erosion [20]. Moreover, decaying plant matter enriches the soil’s organic content, thereby enhancing soil structure and fertility [21].
China has embarked on proactive efforts toward ecological and environmental development in recent years. However, challenges persist in biological soil and water conservation, with varying regions grappling with issues such as limited diversity of effective plant species, aging, and severe degradation of such varieties, particularly those endowed with ecological, economic, and societal benefits [15]. These challenges impede progress in ecological and environmental endeavors. Consequently, the prudent introduction of high-quality foreign plant genetic resources to augment and fortify plant genetic repositories while diversifying plant species for ecological adaptability assumes paramount significance for China’s ecological and environmental development.
The perennial sweet pea (Lathyrus latifolius L.), a perennial herbaceous member of the Fabaceae family and Lathyrus genus, was introduced to China from Nebraska, USA, between 1998 and 2000 [22]. Numerous researchers have conducted introduction and cultivation trials on the Loess Plateau region in Northwest China. Their findings reveal the perennial sweet pea’s robust adaptability, rapid growth, drought resistance, ability to thrive in nutrient-poor soils, salt tolerance, high forage yield, palatability, extensive coverage, and ease of cultivation [22,23,24,25,26]. These attributes make it a promising candidate for soil conservation and fodder provision. Hu (2003) identified the primary adaptation areas for perennial sweet peas on the Loess Plateau, pinpointing gully areas, terraced gully areas, and the western Taihang Mountain range [22]. Furthermore, Fan et al. (2006) explored the plant’s salt resistance, noting its ability to germinate and grow in soils with a salt content of less than 10.0 g/kg [27]. Jia et al. (2012) conducted multisite experimental trials in Hebei Province, unveiling attributes such as drought resistance, tolerance to nutrient-poor soils, vigorous growth, extended flowering, vibrant colors, and notable economic value [15]. These attributes position perennial sweet peas as a robust ground cover option for soil conservation, particularly suitable for landscaping in central and southern Hebei Province [15]. In conclusion, based on extensive adaptive observations and multisite trials, perennial sweet pea exhibits adaptability to diverse regions and terrains, including slopes, small watersheds prone to soil erosion, roadsides, embankments, coal mines, and other protective areas. Its rapid growth, dense foliage, high coverage, and robust root system contribute to effective soil conservation [15,24]. Enriched nodules in its root system enhance soil fertility, improve physical properties, and enhance resistance to erosion [23]. Therefore, research into applying perennial sweet peas in soil conservation holds practical value for constructing ecological landscapes in plains, comprehensive mountainous soil conservation, and restructuring planting systems.
Spanning 62% of its total land area, the mountainous regions of Hebei Province represent a focal point for soil and water conservation endeavors [28]. As the government intensifies its efforts to combat soil erosion, these conservation zones have witnessed burgeoning economic growth. Cultivating superior economic species within these conservation areas offers dual advantages by curbing soil erosion and bolstering the economic prospects of local farmers [29]. The perennial sweet pea has emerged from the “Demonstration and Promotion of New Varieties of Soil and Water Conservation Excellent Plants” initiative under the “948” Technical Innovation and Transformation Project. Multisite trial demonstrations from 2005 to 2008 across northwest and central-southern Hebei Province underscored its exceptional drought resistance, adaptability to nutrient-poor soils, and versatile biological traits that require modest soil conditions [15]. However, there is still a gap in the literature for an in-depth evaluation of the efficacy of perennial sweet peas for specific applications in soil and water conservation in this region.
To this end, this study selected four sites—Yi County, suburban areas of Shijiazhuang City, She County, and Zhuolu County—to analyze the multisite introduction trial outcomes of the perennial sweet pea. This research centers around two goals: (1) to investigate and analyze the soil and water conservation indicators of perennial sweet peas, encompassing water retention, soil fertility enhancement, water resource regulation, and erosion control, among others; and (2) to provide indispensable technical support for the ecological development of soil and water conservation environments and the sustainable economic advancement of mountainous regions across diverse geographical areas.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Overview of the Experimental Site

The experimental sites were primarily established in four distinct locations within Hebei Province: Yi County, the suburban areas of Shijiazhuang City, Zhuolu County, and She County (Figure 1). The central experimental area was situated in the suburban region of Shijiazhuang City. Further comprehensive details concerning the essential characteristics of these sites can be found in Table 1. The experimental duration extended from March 2019 to October 2022.

2.2. Experimental Materials

The perennial sweet pea variety was ‘Lancar’, introduced from Nebraska, USA. Its origin lies at the coordinates of 100° W longitude and 41° N latitude, characterized by a warm, moderately dry continental climate and a frost-free period of 150 days.

2.3. Experimental Design

The experimental design encompassed four runoff plots: standard runoff plot, strip seeding, hole seeding, and natural vegetation (Figure 2). Each runoff plot represents a distinct experimental factor, having a width of 5 m (parallel to contour lines) and a length of 20 m (horizontally projected), resulting in a horizontal area of 100 m2. The standard runoff plot was established on smoothly sloping, perennially fallow cultivated land devoid of any vegetation cover throughout the year. Any emerging plants were promptly removed to maintain a bare condition, thus serving as the control (CK) for comparison. All conditions were consistent with the standard runoff plot for the three treatment plots, except for planting perennial sweet peas and allowing natural vegetation growth in separate areas. Additionally, soil infiltration tests were carried out in the areas cultivated with four-year-old perennial sweet peas, and these results were subsequently compared with those of the control plots (CK).

2.4. Data Collection and Analysis Methods

The assessment of the water conservation performance of perennial sweet peas primarily followed the relevant stipulations outlined in the “Test Specification of Soil and Water Conservation” (SL419-2007) by the Ministry of Water Resources and Electric Power of the People’s Republic of China [30].

2.4.1. Measurement of Water Retention Capacity

The experiment was conducted on a human-disturbed slope with a slope gradient of 9°. Fixed-point tracking observations of soil moisture variations were carried out before and after rainfall events at different soil depths (1–20 cm, 20–40 cm, and 40–60 cm) and positions along the slope, aiming to investigate the water retention capacity of perennial sweet peas on disturbed slopes.

2.4.2. Measurement of Canopy Interception Capacity for Rainwater

Random 1 m × 1 m quadrats were selected within the designated study area. All plants within the quadrats were harvested, and their branch and leaf weights were individually measured to determine the average weight per quadrat. Simultaneously, branch and leaf samples were collected, weighed in situ, immersed in water for 20–30 min, and reweighed once no further water dripping occurred. This procedure was repeated three times for different samples. The branches’ and leaves’ maximum water absorption rate (P) was initially calculated and subsequently used to determine the canopy interception capacity (H). The calculation formula is as follows [30]:
p = g 1 − g 2 g 1 × 100 % h = G × P W
In the formula, P represents the maximum water absorption rate of branches and leaves (%); g1 stands for the weight of branch and leaf samples before water absorption (kg); g2 corresponds to the weight of branch and leaf samples after water absorption (kg); h signifies the canopy interception of precipitation (mm); G denotes the average weight of branches and leaves per quadrat (kg); and W represents the area of the quadrat (m2).

2.4.3. Determination Method for Unit Area Litter Water Holding Capacity

Diagonal sampling was employed to ensure the experiment’s precision [30]. Three 1 m × 1 m quadrats were selected using a sampling frame along the diagonals of the study area. Within these quadrats, the thickness of the litter was measured, and the weight after air-drying was recorded. Subsequently, the desiccated litter samples were immersed in water for 24 h, then retrieved and reweighed after no further water dripping [30]. The water-holding capacity of the litter was calculated by subtracting the dry weight from the wet weight and dividing the result by the quadrat area.

2.4.4. Determination Method for Water Absorption Characteristics of Litter

The litter’s water absorption capacity was assessed using an indoor soaking method, with subsequent calculations of water absorption levels and rates at various time intervals: 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 24, and 48 h.

2.4.5. Measurement of Surface Runoff Reduction Capacity

Surface runoff-induced soil erosion constitutes the primary form of hydraulic erosion [31]. This study focused on observing and analyzing total runoff and sediment yield resulting from natural rainfall in the standard runoff plots planted with perennial sweet peas in the slate region of low mountainous hills.

2.4.6. Method for Determining Soil Water Storage and Retention Capacity

The analysis of soil water storage capacity primarily involves evaluating soil bulk density, porosity, and mechanical composition in areas where perennial sweet peas are planted. As a vital layer in forest hydrology and ecology, soil influences various attributes such as water-holding capacity, retention, erosion resistance, and permeability [32,33]. Bulk density reflects soil physical characteristics influenced by texture, structure, porosity, and organic content [34]. Lower bulk density indicates improved soil structure and enhanced water retention and infiltration due to organic aggregates fostering well-aggregated soil [35]. Soil pores comprise capillary and non-capillary types, with capillary pores playing a significant role in water movement and evaporation, ensuring a balance between plant root uptake and moisture preservation [36]. More extensive non-capillary pores store water, minimizing evaporation and facilitating the movement of water to lower soil layers, forming groundwater through gravitational influence [37].

2.4.7. Method for Determining Soil Infiltration

The Modified Double-Ring Infiltrometer Method was employed to measure soil infiltration. The procedure is as follows: Firstly, select representative locations within the study area. Next, use a mallet to sequentially insert the inner and outer rings into the soil, ensuring their alignment at the exact center point. Typically, the rings are inserted to a depth of 10 cm, maintaining a level opening. Add a predetermined amount of water to the inner ring while simultaneously adding water to the outer ring without precise measurement, ensuring a roughly equal water level in both rings. Employ a stopwatch to record the time taken for water infiltration. Prepare the subsequent water application during this observation period. Following complete water infiltration, restart the timer and add water to the rings. Repeat this sequence until the consistent infiltration time for a fixed water quantity is achieved.

2.4.8. Measurement of Canopy Cover

To determine the coverage percentage (%), begin by selecting a sample area of 1 m2. Utilize steel tape and quadrat rope to create markings at 10 cm intervals. Using a needle with a thickness of approximately 2 mm, establish a sequence of 100 points spaced 10 cm apart horizontally. For each point, insert the needle vertically downward from above the vegetation until it makes contact, indicating its ‘presence’. If there is no contact, record it as ‘absent’ and note it on the form provided. Finally, tally up the total count of ‘presence’ instances to calculate the coverage percentage. This calculation is performed as follows:
C = T − N T × 100 %
In the formula, C is the coverage (%); T is the total number of times; N is the number of no contact (“none”).

3. Results

3.1. Water Retention Capacity of Perennial Sweet Pea Ground Coverage

This experiment is located in the Dongying Experimental Area of the Taihang Mountain Piedmont Plain. Compared to the control plot (bare ground), the disturbed slope exhibited distinctive patterns in soil moisture variation, particularly following rainfall and subsequent planting of perennial sweet peas. Figure 3 illustrates notable changes in soil moisture within the 0–60 cm soil layer of the 9° disturbed slope. Specifically, the moisture content in the 0–20 cm soil layer increased from 10.51% to 17.39% (Figure 3a), in the 20–40 cm soil layer from 10.63% to 17.25% (Figure 3b), and in the 40–60 cm soil layer from 10.09% to 16.04% (Figure 3c). However, subsequently, due to the transpiration of the perennial sweet pea vegetation and soil evaporation, the moisture content began to decrease. Notably, the decline in moisture within the 40–60 cm soil layer was more rapid than that observed in the control plot, indicating that the profound root system of the perennial sweet peas effectively utilized soil water below 50 cm.
As observed from Figure 3d, the water storage increase in the 0–60 cm soil layer at different slope positions on a 9° disturbed slope after rainfall was notably higher in the areas where perennial sweet pea was cultivated compared to the control plots. This difference was particularly pronounced in the upper and middle sections.

3.2. Canopy Interception Capacity of Perennial Sweet Pea

The experiment on the interception ability of the perennial sweet pea canopy was conducted in the She County intermountain basin. Ascertained through determination, the foliage of perennial sweet peas exhibits commendable hygroscopic attributes. Its foliage’s maximal water absorption rate exhibits variations across distinct growth and phenological phases, notably between 25% and 32%. Correspondingly, its foliage’s pinnacle water retention capacity lies within the range of 0.7 mm to 1 mm, as shown in Table 2.

3.3. Litter Water Holding Capacity and Absorption Performance of Perennial Sweet Pea

In the Shijiazhuang Dongying Experimental Zone, perennial sweet pea litter exhibits commendable water absorption capabilities. Through measurements conducted on four-year-old sweet pea litter, the average maximum water retention rate was 2.73 times its weight (Table 3). In the same year, per hectare of litter can absorb 10.16 metric tons of adequate rainfall, augmenting soil moisture content and bolstering soil water storage capacity, which plays a pivotal role in soil-water conservation and hydrological regulation. Notably, a more extensive accumulation of litter corresponds to a thicker litter layer, resulting in heightened rainfall interception and enhanced water retention capacity.
The absorption process of litter from perennial sweet peas is depicted in Figure 4. Initially, the absorption rate was notably rapid, gradually transitioning to a moderated increase over time. Eventually, this trend reached a point of near constancy, indicating the attainment of saturation within the litter. At this juncture, the litter achieved its maximum water-holding capacity.

3.4. Surface Runoff Reduction Capacity of Perennial Sweet Pea

The experiments on the reduction of runoff and sediment yield in the perennial sweet pea planting area were conducted in the low hilly granite region of Yi County. Table 4 shows that following heavy rainfall, the surface runoff volume in the four-year-old perennial sweet pea plot was significantly lower than in the control plot featuring bare ground (CK) and the plot with well-established natural vegetation. During severe rainfall, the four-year-old perennial sweet pea plot demonstrated a substantial 90.4% reduction in runoff compared to the bare ground (CK) and a notable 42% reduction compared to the mature natural vegetation plot. These findings underscore the robust rainwater interception and runoff reduction capacities of the four-year-old perennial sweet pea trial area, surpassing the runoff mitigation performance of the mature natural vegetation. Furthermore, during heavy rainfall events, the surface sediment production from the four-year-old perennial sweet pea plot was effectively nil in contrast to the bare ground (CK) and the plot with well-established natural vegetation, which yielded discernible sediment volumes. The four-year-old perennial sweet pea’s remarkable sediment interception ability contributes to mitigating soil erosion and minimizing its occurrence. Nevertheless, it is noteworthy that during heavy rainfall, the surface runoff volumes from the four-year-old perennial sweet pea plot and the well-established natural vegetation plot were comparable yet distinctly lower than those from the bare ground (CK).

3.5. Soil Storage and Retention Capacity of Perennial Sweet Pea

The soil’s water storage capacity and retention ability are primarily demonstrated through its physical properties, encompassing soil bulk density, particle density, total porosity, capillary porosity, and non-capillary porosity. This experiment was conducted in Dongying, Shijiazhuang City. As evidenced by Table 5, the soil bulk density of the perennial sweet pea plot measured 1.38 g/cm3, noticeably lower than that of the bare ground (CK). The total porosity of the soil in the perennial sweet pea plot was recorded at 46.88%, indicating an increase of 2.55% compared to the bare ground (CK) and 3.64% compared to the natural weed-infested plot. Furthermore, the non-capillary porosity of the soil in the perennial sweet pea plot was calculated at 15.64%, demonstrating a 4.92% rise over the bare ground (CK) and a 5.78% increment over the natural weed-infested plot.
In summary, the soil physical properties within the perennial sweet pea trial area conspicuously surpass those of both the bare ground and the naturally weed-infested area. This observation underscores the perennial sweet pea’s capability to engender a favorable soil granular structure, enhance soil physical attributes, elevate soil water stability indices, and amplify soil infiltration and water retention capabilities.

3.6. Improved Soil Infiltration Capacity of Perennial Sweet Pea

This experiment was also conducted in Dongying, Shijiazhuang City. Figure 5 presents the soil infiltration rate curves within the perennial sweet pea area. Observations from the graph reveal an initial rapid soil infiltration rate, which gradually decelerated as time progressed and infiltration levels increased, eventually reaching a stabilized state. Notably, the area around the root system of the perennial sweet pea exhibited a consistent infiltration rate of 1.5 mm per minute. In contrast, the stable infiltration rate of the soil in the perennial sweet pea region stood at 0.52 mm per minute. The bare land exhibited the lowest rate at 0.21 mm per minute.
These findings underscore the multifaceted enhancement of soil infiltration characteristics within the perennial sweet pea region. The outcomes are robust evidence of perennial sweet peas’ impact on soil hydrological processes as a specific vegetation type. Additionally, they emphasize the potential role of vegetation in safeguarding water and soil resources.

3.7. Canopy Coverage of Perennial Sweet Pea

The experimental site was situated in the Piedmont area of the Taihang Mountains, Yi County, with the four-year-old growth age of perennial sweet peas. Figure 6a shows that the coverage progression of four-year-old perennial sweet peas is discernible. The coverage growth between broadcasting and hill planting methods no longer exhibited disparities. Both methods achieved coverage of 95% by late July and reached full coverage of 100% by early August. Consequently, the sowing method did not affect the coverage expansion of four-year-old perennial sweet peas.
Figure 6b illustrates that four-year-old perennial sweet peas in the well-soiled Taihang Mountains Piedmont region possess commendable vegetation recovery capabilities following harvesting. Within 45 days, complete coverage of 100% was achieved. Moreover, the vegetation recovery capacity exhibited a linear correlation with time, with a substantial correlation coefficient of 0.9929.

4. Discussion

Implementing biological soil and water conservation measures through vegetation planting has proven effective in mitigating soil erosion [21]. Extensive experimentation and demonstration across multiple sites within Hebei Province highlight the significant efficacy of perennial sweet peas in soil and water conservation and hydrological regulation. Perennial sweet pea plays a pivotal role in enhancing crucial aspects such as water retention capacity, canopy interception, litter water-holding capability, and the reduction of surface runoff. Additionally, the study highlights the improvements in soil physical properties, infiltration capacity, and soil storage capability within the perennial sweet pea trial area.

4.1. The Role of Perennial Sweet Pea in Soil and Water Conservation

Culturing perennial sweet peas has been shown to significantly impact soil moisture content, primarily due to their dense vegetation cover. One of the fundamental mechanisms through which vegetation influences soil moisture is the reduction of ground-level evaporation [38]. The abundant foliage and vigorous growth of perennial sweet peas create a protective canopy over the soil surface, reducing direct exposure to sunlight and wind. This shading effect is pivotal in diminishing the soil evaporation rate, consequently contributing to maintaining higher levels of soil re [39]. Furthermore, the presence of perennial sweet peas facilitates the capture and retention of rainwater within the soil profile. The plant’s canopy intercepts and slows down raindrops, allowing more water to infiltrate the soil rather than running off, increasing soil moisture [18,19]. Another critical factor contributing to soil moisture retention is the efficient utilization of soil water by the deep root system of perennial sweet peas. Their extensive root network can tap into water resources that are typically beyond the reach of shallower-rooted plants, effectively minimizing competition for soil moisture [39]. While perennial sweet peas enhance soil moisture content, it is essential to note that the moisture levels gradually recede over time. This decline can be attributed to plant transpiration and soil evaporation [39,40,41]. Dynamic fluctuations in soil moisture in perennial sweet pea plots reveal that plants actively transpire water through their leaves and stems. As soil moisture is exposed to atmospheric conditions, a gradual decrease in soil moisture occurs [42,43]. Nevertheless, this decline is generally slower compared to bare ground plots (CK) due to the initial moisture accumulation and the overall moisture-conserving properties of the perennial sweet pea ecosystem. These findings underscore the potential benefits of incorporating perennial sweet peas into land management strategies to conserve soil moisture.
The hygroscopic properties of perennial sweet pea leaves and litter play a pivotal role in soil and water conservation. During specific key phenological stages, the leaf’s moisture-absorbing characteristics enable the plant to effectively capture water vapor from the air, particularly during periods of high humidity or dew formation, further enhancing its ability to capture and retain water resources within the canopy [18,19]. These attributes contribute to the mitigation of soil erosion, improvement of soil structure, and enhancement of overall resilience in water-limited ecosystems. Moreover, the leaf litter layer beneath the canopy of perennial sweet peas serves as a reservoir for capturing moisture [6,16,17]. This accumulated water gradually infiltrates the soil, thereby increasing soil moisture content and augmenting the overall water storage capacity of the ecosystem. These mechanisms hold significant importance in soil and water conservation and broader watershed management strategies, highlighting the multifaceted benefits of perennial sweet peas in sustainable land management practices.
The correlation between fallen leaf accumulation and improved rainfall interception underscores the intricate interplay between vegetation and litter, collectively sustaining water resources [44]. Under heavy rainfall, the four-year-old perennial sweet pea trial area effectively intercepts rainwater and reduces runoff, surpassing the runoff reduction capabilities of mature natural vegetation. Additionally, heightened sediment interception during intense rainfall underscores perennial sweet peas’ potential in mitigating sediment deposition, offering a promising strategy against soil erosion and its consequences. This underscores the importance of managing leguminous cover and residues to mitigate the impact of rainfall, aligning seamlessly with previous research findings [1].

4.2. The Function of Perennial Sweet Peas in Hydrological Regulation

One study showed that cultivating leguminous plants reduces soil erosion and enhances soil organic matter content [45]. In this study, perennial sweet pea plots exhibited superior physical soil properties compared to bare ground (CK) and naturally vegetated plots. This distinction primarily arises from the influence of soil organic matter content, soil microbial activity, fauna, and vegetation growth on soil physical attributes. This interplay augments soil organic matter content, stimulating microbial activity and expediting organic matter conversion. Stable organic acids produced through microbial decomposition facilitate soil particle binding, promoting aggregate formation and enhancing water stability [46].
Numerous studies emphasize roots’ pivotal role in ameliorating soil structure [47,48,49,50,51]. Perennial sweet peas’ extensive root system enhances soil porosity, reduces bulk density, and improves gas exchange and permeability. Additionally, soil biota significantly influences soil physical properties. Soils cultivated with perennial sweet peas exhibit favorable attributes, particularly increased organic matter content. Soil organisms, particularly earthworms, create larger pores through their activities, further increasing soil porosity and facilitating the necessary soil particle structure. Moreover, fallen leaves and branches nourish soil organisms and microbes, fostering biological activity that generates pores within the soil. Conversely, the decomposition of these materials produces humus that binds with clay particles, forming minute aggregates that sustain soil porosity and permeability.
Furthermore, the dense vegetation of perennial sweet peas contributes to rainfall interception, slowing surface runoff and promoting soil water infiltration, thus demonstrating a rainwater conservation effect. Simultaneously, perennial sweet pea cultivation enhances soil porosity, resulting in a well-structured and loose texture. After rainfall, a significant portion of surface runoff transforms into slow-moving soil runoff, percolating through non-capillary pores to lower soil layers due to gravity [52]. Fallen leaves and the formation of minute aggregates increase soil surface roughness, decelerating runoff and enhancing infiltration. Moreover, the well-developed taproot system of perennial sweet peas generates non-capillary pores, further enhancing soil infiltration.
In conclusion, this study highlights the significant role of perennial sweet peas in soil and water conservation and hydrological regulation. The findings have implications for sustainable land management practices, particularly in regions prone to soil erosion and water scarcity. However, it is important to acknowledge certain limitations of this research. The study primarily focused on a specific geographic area, and the results may not be directly applicable to other regions with differing climatic and soil conditions. Future research could explore the adaptability of perennial sweet peas in various ecological settings and assess their long-term impact on soil and water conservation.

5. Conclusions

From an ecological perspective, perennial sweet pea emerges as an adept candidate for soil and water conservation. Its dense canopy coverage, efficient moisture retention, and robust root framework position the four-year-old perennial sweet pea with remarkable rainwater interception and runoff reduction capabilities, notably surpassing the runoff mitigation aptitude of mature natural vegetation. Additionally, its adeptness in intercepting sediment contributes significantly to soil erosion control. The potential of perennial sweet peas extends to enhancing soil physical attributes, amplifying permeability, and bolstering water retention capacity, collectively advancing sustainable land management principles. Hence, perennial sweet pea holds substantial promise for fostering ecological restoration and driving sustainable development. The findings of this study lay a foundation for the broader application of perennial sweet peas in soil and water conservation across varied regions. This research offers solutions to soil and water conservation challenges in future studies, encouraging further exploration and practical utilization of this plant species.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, methodology, and writing—original draft preparation, L.S.; formal analysis, investigation, data curation, and software, C.D.; writing—review and editing, S.M. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This research was funded by the Hebei Provincial Water Conservancy Research Project (Grant No. Jishuiyan 2008-73).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data supporting the results of this study are included in the manuscript, and data sets are available upon request.

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank all members of the experimental team at Hebei Extension and Experiment Center for Water Technology for their contributions.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

  1. Ahuchaogu, I.I.; Ehiomogue, P.O.; Udoumoh, U.I. Effects of soil and water conservation measures on the environment: A review. Poljopr. Teh. 2022, 47, 42–55. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Bashir, S.; Javed, A.; Bibi, I.; Ahmad, N. Soil and Water Conservation; Sabir, M., Akhtar, J., Hakeem, K.R., Eds.; University of Agriculture: Faisalabad, Pakistan, 2017; pp. 263–286. [Google Scholar]
  3. Ma, X.W.; Yang, Q.K.; Liu, B.Y. Assessment of China potential soil and water loss based on GIS. J. Soil Water Conserv. 2002, 16, 49–53. [Google Scholar]
  4. HWRI. Achieving the Harmonious Unity of “Green” and “Wealth”—A Discussion on Fully Implementing the Decision and Deployment of Water Conservancy Reform and Development. Hebei Water Resour. 2014, 8, 1. [Google Scholar]
  5. Wohlfart, C.; Kuenzer, C.; Chen, C.; Liu, G. Socia-lecological challenges in the Yellow River basin (China): A review. Environ. Earth Sci. 2016, 75, 1066. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Abiye, W. Soil and water conservation nexus agricultural productivity in Ethiopia. Adv. Agric. 2022, 2022, 8611733. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Karimi, Z.; Abdi, E.; Deljouei, A.; Cislaghi, A.; Shirvany, A.; Schwarz, M.; Hales, T.C. Vegetation-induced soil stabilization in coastal area: An example from a natural mangrove forest. Catena 2022, 216, 106410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Adimassu, Z.; Langan, S.; Johnston, R.; Mekuria, W.; Amede, T. Impacts of soil and water conservation practices on crop yield, run-off, soil loss and nutrient loss in Ethiopia: Review and synthesis. Environ. Manag. 2017, 59, 87–101. [Google Scholar]
  9. Kassam, A.; Derpsch, R.; Friedrich, T. Global achievements in soil and water conservation: The case of Conservation Agriculture. Int. Soil Water Conserv. Res. 2014, 2, 5–13. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Wolka, K.; Moges, A.; Yimer, F. Farmers’ perception of the effects of soil and water conservation structures on crop production: The case of Bokole watershed, Southern Ethiopia. Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 7, 990–1000. [Google Scholar]
  11. Mwanake, H.; Mehdi-Schulz, B.; Schulz, K.; Kitaka, N.; Olang, L.O.; Lederer, J.; Herrnegger, M. Agricultural Practices and Soil and Water Conservation in the Transboundary Region of Kenya and Uganda: Farmers’ Perspectives of Current Soil Erosion. Agriculture 2023, 13, 1434. [Google Scholar]
  12. Jarray, F.; Hermassi, T.; Mechergui, M.; Zucca, C.; Le, Q.B. Long-Term Impact of Soil and Water Conservation Measures on Soil Erosion in a Tunisian Semi-Arid Watershed. Land 2023, 12, 1537. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Novara, A.; Cerda, A.; Barone, E.; Gristina, L. Cover crop management and water conservation in vineyard and olive orchards. Soil Tillage Res. 2021, 208, 104896. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Yaekob, T.; Tamene, L.; Gebrehiwot, S.G.; Demissie, S.S.; Adimassu, Z.; Woldearegay, K.; Mekonnen, K.; Amede, T.; Abera, W.; Recha, J.W.; et al. Assessing the impacts of different land uses and soil and water conservation interventions on runoff and sediment yield at different scales in the central highlands of Ethiopia. Renew. Agric. Food Syst. 2022, 37, S73–S87. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Jia, Y.G.; Xu, S.Z.; Xu, X.Q. Experimental study of introduction of Perennial Pea in Hebei Province. South-North Water Divers. Water Sci. Technol. 2012, 10, 153–157. [Google Scholar]
  16. Abdi, E.; Saleh, H.R.; Majnonian, B.; Deljouei, A. Soil fixation and erosion control by Haloxylon persicum roots in arid lands, Iran. J. Arid. Land 2019, 11, 86–96. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Deljouei, A.; Cislaghi, A.; Abdi, E.; Borz, S.A.; Majnounian, B.; Hales, T.C. Implications of hornbeam and beech root systems on slope stability: From field and laboratory measurements to modelling methods. Plant Soil 2023, 483, 547–572. [Google Scholar]
  18. Sadeghi, S.M.M.; Gordon, D.A.; Van Stan, J.T., II. A global synthesis of throughfall and stemflow hydrometeorology. In Precipitation Partitioning by Vegetation: A Global Synthesis; Springer: Cham, Switzerland, 2020; pp. 49–70. [Google Scholar]
  19. Nyawade, S.O.; Gachene, C.K.; Karanja, N.N.; Gitari, H.I.; Schulte-Geldermann, E.; Parker, M.L. Controlling soil erosion in smallholder potato farming systems using legume intercrops. Geoderma Reg. 2019, 17, e00225. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Lin, M.; Sadeghi, S.M.M.; Van Stan, J.T. Partitioning of rainfall and sprinkler-irrigation by crop canopies: A global review and evaluation of available research. Hydrology 2020, 7, 76. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Asfaw, A. Review on the role of soil and water conservation practices on soil properties improvement in Ethiopia. Int. J. Agric. Sci. Food Technol. 2022, 8, 225–231. [Google Scholar]
  22. Hu, J.Z. Evaluation of the adaptability of Lathyrus latifolius from USA to the Loess Plateau. Acta Prataculturae Sin. 2003, 12, 93–98. [Google Scholar]
  23. Hu, J.Z.; Yan, X.L.; Lei, Q.X.; Wang, Z.K.; Dang, W.Q. Experimental study on the introduction of excellent plants for soil conservation. Water Resour. Hydropower Eng. 2002, 33, 68–73. [Google Scholar]
  24. Zhang, H.Q.; Zhang, M.L.; Xin, Y.; Pu, B. Study of Perennial Pea introduced and taken in Loess Plateau. J. Soil Water Conserv. 2002, 17, 135–141. [Google Scholar]
  25. Gong, X.Y.; Zhang, C.Q. Analysis of nutrient composition and growth performance of wild meadow pea-vine in Guizhou. Guizhou Agric. Sci. 2005, 33, 88. [Google Scholar]
  26. Lei, Q.X.; Xie, D.J.; Chen, X.; Yu, Z. Experimental study on the introduction of excellent plants for soil conservation in the United States. J. Soil Water Conserv. 2004, 4, 14–16. [Google Scholar]
  27. Fan, X.L.; Kou, Q.; Wang, H.B.; Zhang, X.N. Study on salt tolerance of several introduced water conservation plants. Gansu Agric. Sci. Technol. 2004, 47–48. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Liu, F. Study on Evaluation of Cultivated Land Intensive Utilization in Mountain Area about Hebei Province—A Case Study of Laiyuan County. Master’s Thesis, Hebei Agricultural University, Baoding, China, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  29. Huang, T.S. Effects of Different Soil and Water Loss Control Measures on Surface Runoff and Soil Nutrients in Camellia Forest in Purple Soil Region. Master’s Thesis, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China, 2018. [Google Scholar]
  30. Test Specification of Soil and Water Conservation. Available online: https://www.doc88.com/p-1983438359602.html (accessed on 10 July 2023).
  31. Gelebo, A.H.; Kasiviswanthan, K.S.; Khare, D. A spatial-temporal assessment of groundwater development in response to soil erosion. Groundw. Sustain. Dev. 2022, 18, 100801. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Zhang, Y.; Zhang, B.; Xu, Q.; Gao, D.; Xu, W.; Ren, R.; Jiang, J.; Wang, S. The effects of plant and soil characteristics on partitioning different rainfalls to soil in a subtropical Chinese fir forest ecosystem. Forests 2022, 13, 123. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Rana, S.; Cheng, X.; Wu, Y.; Hu, C.; Jemim, R.S.; Liu, Z.; Wang, Y.; Cai, Q.; Geng, X.; Guo, X.; et al. Evaluation of soil and water conservation function in the Wugong mountain meadow based on the comprehensive index method. Heliyon 2022, 8, e11867. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Arthur, E.; Schjønning, P.; Moldrup, P.; Tuller, M.; de Jonge, L.W. Density and permeability of a loess soil: Long-term organic matter effect and the response to compressive stress. Geoderma 2013, 193, 236–245. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Huang, L.W. Influence of Different Vegetation Restoration Modes on Soil Physical Properties and Labile Carbon in Purple Soil Erosion Areas. Master’s Thesis, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China, 2015. [Google Scholar]
  36. Ling, Q.; Zhao, X.; Wu, P.; Gao, X.; Sun, W. Effect of the fodder species canola (Brassica napus L.) and daylily (Hemerocallis fulva L.) on soil physical properties and soil water content in a rainfed orchard on the semiarid Loess Plateau, China. Plant Soil 2020, 453, 209–228. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Kučera, A.; Samec, P.; Bajer, A.; Skene, K.R.; Vichta, T.; Vranová, V.; Meena, R.S.; Datta, R. Forest soil water in landscape context. In Soil Moisture Importance; IntechOpen: London, UK, 2020; Volume 45. [Google Scholar]
  38. Bai, Y.D. Study on Water Requirement Rule of Grown-Up Grapes and Micro-Irriagation Water-Waving Technology on Extreme Arid Region. Ph.D. Thesis, Xinjiang Agricultural University, Urumqi, China, 2011. [Google Scholar]
  39. Fischer, C.; Leimer, S.; Roscher, C.; Ravenek, J.; de Kroon, H.; Kreutziger, Y.; Baade, J.; Beßler, H.; Eisenhauer, N.; Weigelt, A.; et al. Plant species richness and functional groups have different effects on soil water content in a decade-long grassland experiment. J. Ecol. 2019, 107, 127–141. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  40. Sun, X.S. Study on the Relationship Between Plant Communities and Soils in Different Types of Sandlands in Kubuqi Desert. Master’s Thesis, Inner Mongolia Normal University, Hohhot, China, 2010. [Google Scholar]
  41. Guderle, M.; Bachmann, D.; Milcu, A.; Gockele, A.; Bechmann, M.; Fischer, C.; Roscher, C.; Landais, D.; Ravel, O.; Devidal, S.; et al. Dynamic niche partitioning in root water uptake facilitates efficient water use in more diverse grassland plant communities. Funct. Ecol. 2018, 32, 214–227. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Cheng, Y.; Zhan, H.; Yang, W.; Dang, H.; Li, W. Is annual recharge coefficient a valid concept in arid and semi-arid regions? Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci. 2017, 21, 5031–5042. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. Song, B.Y. Study on Evapotranspiration from Plant Communities of the Steppe. Clim. Environ. Res. 1997, 3, 25–38. [Google Scholar]
  44. Nazari, M.; Sadeghi, S.M.M.; Van Stan, J.T., II; Chaichi, M.R. Rainfall interception and redistribution by maize farmland in central Iran. J. Hydrol. Reg. Stud. 2020, 27, 100656. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  45. Hu, T.; Xiong, K.; Wang, J. Intercropping Peanut under Forests Can Reduce Soil N2O Emissions in Karst Desertification Control. Forests 2023, 14, 1652. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Boyle, M.; Frankenberger Jr, W.T.; Stolzy, L.H. The influence of organic matter on soil aggregation and water infiltration. J. Prod. Agric. 1989, 2, 290–299. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Ball, B.C.; Bingham, I.; Rees, R.M.; Watson, C.A.; Litterick, A. The role of crop rotations in determining soil structure and crop growth conditions. Can. J. Soil Sci. 2005, 85, 557–577. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Uteau, D.; Pagenkemper, S.K.; Peth, S.; Horn, R. Root and time dependent soil structure formation and its influence on gas transport in the subsoil. Soil Tillage Res. 2013, 132, 69–76. [Google Scholar]
  49. Fischer, C.; Tischer, J.; Roscher, C.; Eisenhauer, N.; Ravenek, J.; Gleixner, G.; Attinger, S.; Jensen, B.; de Kroon, H.; Mommer, L.; et al. Plant species diversity affects infiltration capacity in an experimental grassland through changes in soil properties. Plant Soil 2015, 397, 1–16. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  50. Gould, I.J.; Quinton, J.N.; Weigelt, A.; De Deyn, G.B.; Bardgett, R.D. Plant diversity and root traits benefit physical properties key to soil function in grasslands. Ecol. Lett. 2016, 19, 1140–1149. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef] [PubMed]
  51. Barley, K.P. The root growth of irrigated perennial pastures and its effect on soil structure. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 1953, 4, 283–291. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Hurni, H.; Abate, S.; Bantider, A.; Debele, B.; Ludi, E.; Portner, B.; Yitaferu, B.; Zeleke, G. Land degradation and sustainable land management in the highlands of Ethiopia. In Global Change and Sustainable Development: A Synthesis of Regional Experiences from Research; University of Bern: Bern, Switzerland, 2010; pp. 187–207. [Google Scholar]
Applsci 13 11075 g001
Figure 1. Field trials of perennial sweet pea in Hebei Province.
Figure 1. Field trials of perennial sweet pea in Hebei Province.
Applsci 13 11075 g001
Applsci 13 11075 g002
Figure 2. The four runoff plots. The four runoff plots of the experimental design (a), The central experimental site layout conditions (b).
Figure 2. The four runoff plots. The four runoff plots of the experimental design (a), The central experimental site layout conditions (b).
Applsci 13 11075 g002
Applsci 13 11075 g003
Figure 3. Soil moisture variation in the 0–20 cm (a), 20–40 cm (b), and 40–60 cm (c) soil layer of a perennial sweet pea on a 9° disturbed slope after rainfall, and soil moisture content increases in the 0–60 cm soil layer at different slope positions on a 9° slope after rainfall (d).
Figure 3. Soil moisture variation in the 0–20 cm (a), 20–40 cm (b), and 40–60 cm (c) soil layer of a perennial sweet pea on a 9° disturbed slope after rainfall, and soil moisture content increases in the 0–60 cm soil layer at different slope positions on a 9° slope after rainfall (d).
Applsci 13 11075 g003
Applsci 13 11075 g004
Figure 4. Water Absorption Process of Perennial Sweet Pea Litter.
Figure 4. Water Absorption Process of Perennial Sweet Pea Litter.
Applsci 13 11075 g004
Applsci 13 11075 g005
Figure 5. Soil infiltration process curves. These include the four-year-old perennial sweet pea rhizosphere soil infiltration process curve (a), four-year-old perennial sweet pea soil infiltration process curve (b), and bare land (CK) soil infiltration process process curve (c).
Figure 5. Soil infiltration process curves. These include the four-year-old perennial sweet pea rhizosphere soil infiltration process curve (a), four-year-old perennial sweet pea soil infiltration process curve (b), and bare land (CK) soil infiltration process process curve (c).
Applsci 13 11075 g005
Applsci 13 11075 g006
Figure 6. The coverage of four-year-old perennial sweet peas, encompassing (a) the impact of two distinct planting methods, strip seeding and hole seeding, on the coverage of perennial sweet peas and (b) the vegetation recovery coverage of perennial sweet peas following harvesting.
Figure 6. The coverage of four-year-old perennial sweet peas, encompassing (a) the impact of two distinct planting methods, strip seeding and hole seeding, on the coverage of perennial sweet peas and (b) the vegetation recovery coverage of perennial sweet peas following harvesting.
Applsci 13 11075 g006
Table 1. Overview of natural conditions in the experimental zones for perennial sweet pea introduction.
Table 1. Overview of natural conditions in the experimental zones for perennial sweet pea introduction.
Experimental ZonesDescription
Yi CountyThe study area is located in the northern segment of the Taihang Mountains in Yi County, specifically in the village of Xiayuegezhuang (39°25′ N, 115°23′ E; about 130–180 m above sea level). This region is characterized by hilly terrain with slopes typically 15–20 degrees. The soil type is red, with varying thicknesses ranging from 10 to 20 cm, representing a typical low mountain arid region. The region has a temperate continental monsoon climate, with an annual mean temperature of 11.4–11.9 °C. The climate is characterized by arid conditions, with an annual precipitation of 450–600 mm and annual evaporation of 2100 mm. Approximately 80% of the rainfall occurs during July and August. The frost-free period spans approximately 170 days.
Suburban Areas of Shijiazhuang CityThe study area was situated in the northwestern outskirts of Shijiazhuang City (114°26′ E, 38°0′ N, 84.818 m above sea level elevation), representing the central plain region of the alluvial fan at the foot of the Taihang Mountains. The soil predominantly consists of loamy soil, with a 0–40 cm tillage layer. The region experiences an annual average temperature of 12.8 °C, an average annual precipitation of 599 mm, 2758 h of sunshine annually, and a frost-free period lasting 194 days.
Zhuolu CountyThe study area was 1.5 km south of Zhuolu County, Zhangjiakou City (115°13′ E, 40°22′ N, elevation 524.6 m). The predominant soil type is sandy loam. It falls within the hilly region and experiences an inland monsoon climate. The annual average temperature is 8.8 °C, with an annual average rainfall of 390.5 mm and evaporation measures 785.9 mm—strong winds and dry conditions in spring, indicating a semi-arid to arid climate. Rainfall is concentrated mainly between July and September, with an annual average of 2875 h of sunshine and a frost-free period lasting 140 days.
She CountyThe study area was in the southern part of the Taihang Mountains, in Hui Li, She County, Handan City (113°26′ E, 36°17′ N, elevation 750.6 m). It falls within a mountain basin; the predominant soil type is sandy loam. The climate in this region is characterized as an inland monsoon climate with a prevalence of strong winds and dry conditions in the spring. The average temperature is 13 °C, with an annual rainfall of 560 mm. Rainfall is concentrated mainly between July and September, and the frost-free period lasts 185 days.
Table 2. Overview of natural conditions in the experimental zones for perennial sweet pea introduction.
Table 2. Overview of natural conditions in the experimental zones for perennial sweet pea introduction.
AgePhenological PeriodMaximum Water Absorption of Branches and LeavesCanopy Intercepted Precipitation (mm)
4Branching period31.42%0.712
4Initial flowering period26.40%0.95
5Branching period25.03%0.98
Table 3. Litter water holding capacity of four-year-old sweet pea.
Table 3. Litter water holding capacity of four-year-old sweet pea.
Sample Quadrat
(1 × 1 m)		Weight of Litter before Water Absorption (kg)Weight of Litter after Water Absorption (kg)Maximum Water Absorption Rate of Litter (%)Litter Water Capacity (mm)
10.4521.6962.751.244
20.3441.282.720.936
30.321.1882.710.868
Average0.3721.3882.731.016
Table 4. Runoff reduction capability of perennial sweet pea (four-year growth).
Table 4. Runoff reduction capability of perennial sweet pea (four-year growth).
Rainfall IntensityRunoff (m3)Sediment Content (kg/m3)
Bare Ground (CK)Natural Vegetation PlotPerennial Sweet Pea PlotBare Ground (CK)Natural Vegetation PlotPerennial Sweet Pea Plot
Severe Rainstorm0.4315 0.0715 0.04151.390.040.00
Heavy Rainfall0.091920.061920.06192000
Table 5. Effects of perennial sweet pea on soil physical properties.
Table 5. Effects of perennial sweet pea on soil physical properties.
Soil LayerSoil GravityDry Soil Bulk Density (g/cm3)Total PorosityCapillary PorosityNon-Capillary Porosity
Perennial Sweet Pea Plot2.60411.3846.88%31.23%15.64%
Bare Ground (CK)2.67281.4944.33%33.60%10.73%
Natural Vegetation Plot2.60351.4843.24%33.37%9.87%
Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Shi, L.; Dai, C.; Maruthaveeran, S. Application of Perennial Sweet Pea in Soil and Water Conservation. Appl. Sci. 2023, 13, 11075. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131911075

AMA Style

Shi L, Dai C, Maruthaveeran S. Application of Perennial Sweet Pea in Soil and Water Conservation. Applied Sciences. 2023; 13(19):11075. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131911075

Chicago/Turabian Style

Shi, Lin, Chenyang Dai, and Sreetheran Maruthaveeran. 2023. "Application of Perennial Sweet Pea in Soil and Water Conservation" Applied Sciences 13, no. 19: 11075. https://doi.org/10.3390/app131911075

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop