Next Article in Journal
Assessing HapHop-Physio: An Exer-Learning Game to Support Therapies for Children with Specific Learning Disorders
Previous Article in Journal
Investigation of the Scale Factor Impact on the Results of Acoustic Emission Monitoring of the Steel Specimens Tension Process
 
 
Search for Articles:
Title / Keyword
Author / Affiliation / Email
Journal
Article Type
 
 
Advanced Search
 
Section
Special Issue
Volume
Issue
Number
Page
 
Journals
Applied Sciences
Volume 12
Issue 16
10.3390/app12168279
applsci-logo
Submit to this Journal Review for this Journal Propose a Special Issue
► Article Menu

Article Menu

share Share announcement Help format_quote Cite question_answer Discuss in SciProfiles thumb_up
...
Endorse textsms
...
Comment
first_page
settings
Order Article Reprints
Font Type:
Arial Georgia Verdana
Font Size:
Aa Aa Aa
Line Spacing:
Column Width:
Background:
Article

Performance Evaluation of Lateritic Subgrade Soil Treated with Lime and Coir Fibre-Activated Carbon

by
Sakina Tamassoki
1,2,
Nik Norsyahariati Nik Daud
1,3,*,
Fauzan Mohd Jakarni
1,
Faradiella Mohd Kusin
4,
Ahmad Safuan A. Rashid
5 and
Mohammad Jawed Roshan
2,5
1
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
2
Faculty of Transportation Engineering, Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul 1001, Afghanistan
3
Housing Research Centre (HRC), Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
4
Department of Environment, Faculty of Forestry and Environment, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Selangor, Malaysia
5
Department of Geotechnics and Transportation, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor Bahru 81310, Johor, Malaysia
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Appl. Sci. 2022, 12(16), 8279; https://doi.org/10.3390/app12168279
Submission received: 2 August 2022 / Revised: 12 August 2022 / Accepted: 15 August 2022 / Published: 19 August 2022
(This article belongs to the Section Civil Engineering)
Browse Figures
Review Reports Versions Notes

Abstract

:
The subgrade layer’s stability considerably influences the long-term performance of pavement systems. This study investigates the influence of lime as a traditional stabiliser and activated carbon with coir fibre (ACF) as waste materials and an environmentally friendly binder to stabilise lateritic subgrade soil. Experiments, including the one-dimensional consolidation and unconfined compressive strength (UCS) tests, have been conducted to investigate the geotechnical properties of stabilised soil in various percentages of additives 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% lime and 1%, 2%, and 3% ACF. The results demonstrate that 3% ACF and 12% lime can significantly improve the strength parameters and decrease the void ratio and permeability in the stabilised soil. Furthermore, microstructural analysis was performed before and after stabilisation for optimum content. The microstructural analysis proves that AC and lime particles fill soil voids, and gel formation binds the soil particles in the stabilised soil matrix. The results show that 3% ACF stabilised soil is comparable with 12% lime in UCS value and decreasing void ratio. Furthermore, both are suitable for subgrade of low-volume road stability according to Malaysian standards.

1. Introduction

Ever increasing population and scarcity of suitable land lead to passing the transportation alignment through regions with marginal soils. However, the marginal soils possess low engineering and mechanical properties. Moreover, the rainfall infiltration further decreases the stability of transportation infrastructures [1]. Therefore, it needs to be stabilised before being used for infrastructure construction [2]. To date, various stabilisation such as chemical stabilisation [3,4,5,6], reinforcement [7,8,9], deep mixing [10,11], and prefabricated vertical drain [12,13] have been utilised to improve the engineering properties of unsuitable soils, and this issue leads to stable constructions.
Soil stabilisation by chemical admixtures has recently gained popularity in geotechnical engineering. Increased modulus of elasticity and resilient modulus, strength properties, reduced plasticity index, permeability, decreased swelling potential and volume instability, deformation and settlement, and improved durability are only a few of the benefits of lime as stabilisation materials [14,15]. In places with wetting and drying cycles, utilising low lime concentration to enhance the mechanical properties of soil is not an effective strategy since the swelling potential of soil is not greatly diminished [16]. On the other hand, adding lime to expansive clay soils, such as black cotton soil, is beneficial because the flexibility of the soil is reduced when lime is added. The application of lime as a stabiliser agent is not helpful for some cases where soil bearing capacity, density, and hydraulic conductivity are insufficient [17]. Durability, compressibility, and soil strength are increased by lime stabilisers while having varying effects on permeability. Moreover, sulfate attack, carbonation, and environmental effect are disadvantages of using lime as soil stabilisation.
Adding fibre to lime-treated soil can reduce the brittleness of treated soil [18]. As a reinforcement, synthetic and natural fibre increases tensile strength, improves stability, and reduces soil’s lateral deformation [19]. Furthermore, fibre minimises the risk of lime stabilisation causing brittle failure. In soil stabilisation with cement, including polypropylene fibres, increased tensile strength, density, and initial elastic modulus. Fibre added to a cement-stabilised clay soil enhanced tensile strength, and reduced swelling potential, shrinkage, and crack width [20]. Moreover, fibre positively influenced the flexural behaviour of cement-based soil stabilisation [21].
In sandy soil, discarded tyre textile fibres were used to improve damping ratio, resilient modulus, and permanent strain [22]. Fibre content and aspect ratio reduced critical confinement stress and enhanced shear strength in sandy soil [23]. Moreover, using fibre in embankments improved slope safety factor, strength, and stability [24]. Furthermore, when fibre-reinforced soil was exposed to freeze-thaw cycles, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) pictures revealed that the fibres remained intact despite the repeated freeze-thaw [25].
Several studies have assessed the impact of including natural fibres in stabilised soil mass with additives. This previous research has revealed that adding natural fibre reinforcing to the soil led to a significant enhancement in strength and a decline in soil stiffness. Table 1 provides a summary of the components explored in prior investigations.
Coir fibre is a natural fibre and one of the productions of coconut waste. Coconut waste is one of the most abundant waste products in agriculture, with a global production of 62.5 million tonnes annually in over 90 countries worldwide [34,35]. Coir fibre has complex properties; each layer structure includes two layers; the first is called the thin primary wall, and the second is called the secondary wall. The mechanical properties of the fibre can be determined in the thick middle layer of this secondary wall, which consists of three layers [36]. Coir fibre has a high lignin content but a low cellulose content, making them extremely strong, resilient, and durable. It has a high resistance to abrasion, fungal and bacterial decay, and pilling. Furthermore, coir fibres can tolerate months of soaking without deterioration [37].
Activated carbon (AC) is another material that improves soil’s compression strength, shear strength [38] and California bearing ratio (CBR) value [39]. AC contains carbonaceous material and has been derived from a wide variety of carbon-rich raw materials, including discarded apple pulp, coconut shells, straw, sugarcane bagasse, apricot stone shells, coir pith, sawdust, peanut husk, and olive stones [40]. It is a widely used method in the environmental sector for removing pollutants from air or water streams in industrial and municipal processes such as groundwater remediation, wastewater treatment plants, oil removal, and air purification by adsorption [41]. AC has a large surface area to absorb CO2 and contaminants in submicroscopic pores. Moreover, it is stable in acidic and basic situations [42,43].
This study investigates the effect of lime as a traditional calcium-based stabiliser and coir fibre with activated carbon obtained from waste agriculture materials on the mechanical properties of lateritic soil. First, pH tests are conducted to determine the initial lime consumption. After that, UCS tests are conducted to find the influence of various lime percentages and activated carbon with and without coir fibre on the mechanical properties of stabilised specimens. Then, the consolidation test is performed for optimum content to determine the void ratio and permeability. Finally, energy dispersive X-ray analysis (EDX), surface area analysis (BET) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM) tests are performed to show the microstructure of untreated and treated soil to better understand the stabilised soil reinforcement mechanism.

2. Laboratory Investigations

2.1. Materials

Lateritic soils are generally unsuitable and weak for the construction of infrastructure facilities. This study collected soil at Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Johor campus. The soil is categorised as A-7-5 [44]. The chemical components of the lateritic soil are shown in Table 2. Moreover, Figure 1 depicts the particle size distribution of lime, AC, and soil. The soil distribution is within the ranges discovered in previous studies [45].
Regarding Figure 1, laser diffraction (LD) tests were conducted for lime, AC, and soil particles less than 75 microns. While sieving was used for soil particles more than 75 microns. Due to time savings and high accuracy, this study combined laser diffraction with conventional techniques [46]. Moreover, laser diffraction is more precise in evaluating the fine contents of residual soil [47], and hence it was employed instead of the hydrometer method.
In Table 2 chemical composition of additive materials is presented. AC coconut derivative was obtained from Evachem company, and lime was supplied by Lhoist company in Malaysia. AC is a kind of carbon that filters organic pollutants from the air, water, and other applications [41]. AC enhances the surface area for chemical reactions due to low-volume porosity [48]. The significant oxides of AC and lime were achieved by X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) testing. About 40% of AC and 98.85% of lime are contained calcium oxide.
Moreover, Coir fibre as reinforcement besides AC is used in this research. It is a waste and environmentally friendly material from a coconut’s husk and is a fibrous material, cheap, and locally available. Coir fibre has higher tensile strength, is lighter, contains more hemicellulose and lignin, and degrades more slowly than other natural fibres. The coir fibre in this study has an average tensile strength of 125 MPa. Figure 2 presented an image of lateritic soil, lime, activated carbon, and coir fibre.

2.2. pH Test

The initial lime consumption was determined according to British Standard (BS) 1377: Part 3: 1990 [49]. The pH test indicates the lowest amount of lime that must be added to soil to cause a substantial change in characteristics. The very alkaline soil pH value (12.4) facilitates the dissolving of aluminous and siliceous chemicals from the lattice of clay minerals during lime stabilisation processes. Calcium silicate hydrate (CSH) and calcium aluminium hydrate (CAH) gels are formed when compounds released from the lattice of clay minerals combine with calcium ions in pore water, coating and bonding soil particles. The development of cementitious pozzolanic reactions is ensured by stabilising clayey soil with lime amounts more than the initial consumption of lime value [50].

2.3. Unconfined Compressive Strength Test

The mechanical characteristics of stabilised specimens are investigated using unconfined compression tests. The UCS testing is performed according to BS1377: Part 7:1990 [49] and a 1 mm/min rate to determine stabilised soil’s compressive strength (qu). The specimens are compacted, similar to the compaction test in three layers.

2.4. One-Dimensional Consolidation Test

The one-dimensional consolidation settlement tests were performed according to British Standard BS1377: Part 5:1990 [49] to investigate the consolidation behaviour of treated soil. Consolidation settlement is the vertical displacement that occurs in a soil specimen due to water expulsion from the voids resulting in volume reduction. All specimens at their optimum moisture content were compressed statically inside the consolidation ring in three equal layers to obtain maximum dry density [51] and then cured. All samples were subjected to vertical stresses of 50, 100, 200, 400, and 800 kPa. Each load increment was kept for 24 h to achieve 90% of consolidation before taking the final reading or increasing the load. Unloading readings have been taken at 200 and 50 kPa.

2.5. Microstructural Analysis

In this study, EDX and FESEM analyses have been performed on natural and modified soil to explore the microstructural changes of stabilised soil based on the previous study’s procedure [52]. These tests have been conducted using a Hitachi SU8010 machine. UCS samples are used to obtain specimens for microstructural testing. Before FESEM analysis, a solid and tiny specimen is covered with platinum using a vacuum sputtering coat. Then, quantitative analyses of natural and treated lateritic soil are conducted by the EDX experiment [53].

2.6. Surface Area Analysis (BET)

The BET test has been conducted to evaluate changes in pore size distribution and surface area of natural and modified specimens in this research. Since most chemical reactions in soils occur at the surface area of particles, it is a parameter in investigating how the soil comes into contact with its surroundings chemically and physically [54]. This technique collects inert gas adsorption isotherm data and models it using the BET isotherm equation [55]. This is one of the most widely used techniques for quantifying external pore size distribution and surface area [56].

3. Test Results and Discussion

3.1. pH

Figure 3 indicates plots of pH values versus days for various lime and activated carbon contents. The pH of the investigated lateritic soil is 4.05, which indicates that it is acidic. The pH value of 12% lime-treated soil is 12.42, but it drops to 11.13 after more than 150 days. In this study, the results for pH values with rising lime and curing time were consistent with [57] for cement and [58] for lime, in that the authors reported that pH declined during curing time. Likewise, the pH decreased by 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% Lime during curing time in the current study. At 12% lime, the alumina and silica components in the soil are dissolved out of the soil, making it accessible to combine with Ca2+ to develop calcium silicates and aluminates as cementing products. Based on the pH test results, 12% lime is the initial lime consumption. When a soil has a pH value smaller, it needs more lime content to improve soil strength [57] due to significant hydration products formed (such as CAH, CSH, and hydrated lime). Lime stabilisation decreases volume change and Atterberg limits of soils but increases the strength and shrinkage limit of the soil-cement matrix [59]. However, in this study, the four percentages of the lime were employed (3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%) to treat lateritic soil. AC also increased pH to 6.6, 6.8, and 7 for 1%, 2%, and 3% AC, respectively. It is evident that 3% lime increases pH value significantly in comparison with AC because lime is an alkali material, while AC is neutral in this study.

3.2. Unconfined Compression Strength

Typical failure patterns of untreated and treated soil specimens with AC and lime are shown in Figure 4. The untreated sample has a bulging shape in the failure plane, while treated specimens were sheared in an inclined plane. The findings of [45] are consistent with the failure plane pattern observations of this study.
The compressive strength of AC and lime specimens is illustrated in Figure 5 and Figure 6. First, the soil was examined for 1%, 2%, and 3% AC content. Then, the soil was examined for 1%, 2%, and 3% AC, and just 0.5% fibre due to using more than 5% decreases the compacted density, reducing soil strength [60]. Moreover, the soil was stabilised with 3%, 6%, 9%, and 12% lime under two and four weeks of curing.
The soil compressive strength was raised with rising AC and ACF content. For instance, the un stabilised UCS value of 200.87 kPa enhanced to 243.65 kPa, 306.31 kPa, and 545.40 kPa for 1%, 2%, and 3% AC. Moreover, the 0.5% coir fibre combination further improved the UCS of AC-treated soil, as shown in Figure 5. Likewise, Crane et al. [61] found that adding powder-activated carbon enhances soil’s UCS value; some previous research demonstrated that coir fibre enhanced clay soil’s bearing capacity, stiffness, and strength [62].
The UCS values in lime-stabilised soil improved as the lime percentage and cure time increased [63]. With increasing lime content, the pH value of soil is increased, and it facilitates the dissolving of siliceous and aluminous chemicals from the lattice of clay minerals during lime stabilisation processes. Calcium aluminium hydrate and calcium silicate hydrate gels are formed due to calcium ions combined with compounds released from the lattice of clay minerals [50]. The UCS value for four-week specimens improved by 18.94% rather than two-week samples. Even though the overall UCS values in Figure 6 indicate that lime content and curing time improve compressive strength, the effectiveness of 12 per cent lime is remarkable. A minimum UCS of 800 kPa is acceptable for constructing medium and low-volume roads, according to the Malaysia Public Works Department (MPWD) requirement. The percentages lower than 12 per cent could not enhance the soil strength adequately due to a pH value lower than 12.4 [57]. The result obtained in this study is comparable to previous findings, in which lime in clay soil improved UCS value and was resistant to compression [64].
Figure 7 illustrates that all treated specimens have more strength than untreated soil specimens. It indicates that adding fibre to AC soils enhances soil strength significantly due to fibre promoting interlocking between soil particles and additives [26]. The UCS value in 3% ACF increased by more than 800 kPa, which is the minimum requirement of (MPWD) specifications, while this amount is obtained for 12% of lime after four weeks. Anggraini et al. [65] observed similar results by including lime and coir fibres in the marian clay soil. They reported enhancement in geotechnical properties such as shear strength parameters, flexibility, and UCS values. Wang et al. (2019) discovered that incorporating wheat straw fibres and lime into soil increased strain-softening behaviour, secant modulus, and shear strength [30,65]. Adding fibre as reinforcement improves sample ductility and stability [28]. Therefore, according to MPWD, 3% ACF and 12% L were adequate to obtain a minimal UCS value, as shown in Figure 7.

3.3. Deformability Index (ID) and Elastic Modulus (E50)

The influence of ACF on the flexibility and stiffness of soil is investigated with the deformability index. The deformability index is the strain at the peak strength of stabilised soil per strain at the peak strength of original soil. It is a factor utilised to explain the deformation behaviour of soil in this study [66]. This parameter has indicated the deformation behaviour of modified soil compared to unmodified soil [67]. UCS results show ID rises from 1.02 to 1.36 for 1% AC to 3%ACF. It confirms that fibre and AC improve soil behaviour from brittle to ductile [68]. However, ID for lime-stabilised specimens is less than one and reduces with increasing lime content, which shows that lime increases brittles in lateritic soil [69].
The influence of AC, ACF, and lime on flexibility and stiffness of soil is also assessed with secant modulus. The secant modulus is regarded as half of the maximum UCS values, as in previous studies [69,70]. Figure 8 shows the elastic modulus values for various combinations. The elastic modulus was raised in AC, ACF, and lime treated with rising content further in 3% ACF and 3% lime; the difference between elastic modulus is insignificant. It is clear that lime increases stiffness in soil due to hydration and pozzolanic processes in lime-treated soil [15].

3.4. One-Dimensional Consolidation

Figure 9 illustrates the e − log P curves and shows that adding 3% ACF and 12% lime has improved the swelling and compression factors. The compression index (CC) has declined by 51% and 78% with the addition of 3% ACF and 12% L, respectively. The interaction of released clay silica and alumina with free additive ions linked the soil particles together in the pore water, improving compressibility. Similar behaviour was seen by [71] when conducting 1-D oedometer tests on soil stabilised lime; lime decreases the void ratio of treated soil. The cementitious gels fill the gaps and voids in the soil structure and significantly reduce the void ratio. Moreover, smaller particles in the AC can minimise the compressibility of parent soil by filling the voids [39].
Figure 10 indicates the void ratio versus consolidation coefficient (Cv) for optimum contents and untreated soil. As can be seen, the stabilised specimens have lower void ratios and, hence, less permeability than untreated soil at the same effective vertical stress. This decline in the void ratio of the stabilised specimens is due to AC and lime, which significantly reduces air pockets’ volume among soil particles throughout the compaction [72]. Adding 3% ACF reduces the porosity of the non-stabilised soil due to activated carbon is contained small particles with high surface area [73]. However, the Cv reduces in lime-treated soil more than in AC specimens. The reduction in Cv values results from the change in the soil structure due to the hydration and pozzolanic processes between soil particles, resulting in a dense and compact mixture. Hence, the lower the Cv value within the soil, the less permeability was found [74].
Figure 11 shows the influence of lime and AC on the permeability coefficient (k) of lateritic soil. The k values for both modified and unmodified soil samples were determined at all stress levels, and specimens were kept saturated in the oedometer cell. However, Mengue et al. [75] recommended calculating the impact of binder content on the permeability coefficient at the highest applied pressure (800 kN/m2). As expected, the permeability of original soil samples is comparatively high (5.40 × 10−8 m/s), whereas that in treated specimens decreases to 2.90 × 10−8 m/s and 6.76 × 10−9 m/s for 3% ACF and 12% lime, respectively. Hydraulic conductivity is a measure of how easily water can flow through interconnected soil voids. Using materials in highway construction depends on the degree of permeability that is effective in the drainage of the pavement system. In this study, AC fills the voids in the stabilised specimen, restricts water, and enhances bonding with the soil particles. Moreover, the free cations of AC interact with the adsorbed clay mineral cations, causing the diffused water layer covering clay particles to shrink. However, lime fills the voids and gaps with cementation gels during curing time and obstructs water flow [76].
According to Figure 11, the hydraulic conductivity decreases by adding 3% ACF and 12% lime. Compared to untreated soil, the hydraulic conductivity declined about 85% and 26% in lime-treated soil and AC specimens. The hydraulic conductivity would decrease as the curing time in the lime-treated specimen was extended, and more cementitious compounds were produced to fill the voids. Higher lime content causes more cementation bonding, making specimens stiffer and demanding more pressure to reach, yielding strength and starting particle displacement [77].

3.5. Microstructural Analysis

The FESEM and EDX results in Figure 12 confirmed that the cementitious gels in lime-stabilised specimens decline permeability at the end of four weeks of curing time. Lateritic soil has ample spaces and is more flocculated, whereas larger voids in lime and AC-treated specimens are filled with cementitious gel [78]. These cementitious gels produced are characterised by their low volume change and high strength [79].
The results of the EDX analysis reveal a few changes in the chemical components of the natural and AC stabilised lateritic soils. The lateritic soil contains varying amounts of Al, O, Si, K, and Fe. The 3% ACF treated has C along with Al, O, Si, K, and Fe [80]. Activated carbon appeared in the treated soil with the element calcium carbonate, a cementation agent that reduces the void ratio [81]. It uses physicochemical mechanisms to bind soil particles together, producing a solid soil structure [82]. The lime-treated sample has Ca along with Al, O, Si, K, and Fe. A high calcium weight percentage in lime-treated soil resulted in increased gel production. Thus, the increase in lime content could be attributed to calcium production [79].

3.6. Surface Area Analysis

The BET surface area technique was used to assess the changes in surface area and micropores of untreated soil, 12% lime, and 3% ACF-treated soil. The impact of lime and AC on the surface area, pore volume, and pore size are shown in Figure 13. The BET values of the unmodified soil and 3% ACF increased from 25.57 m2/g to 55.57 m2/g, while pore size and pore volume decreased from 3.05 × 10 − 7 dm and 0.389 × 10 − 3 dm 3 g to 7.42 × 10 − 8 dm and 0.330 × 10 − 3 dm 3 g , respectively. Although the BET value for 12% lime increased to 28.07 m2/g, it is insignificant compared to 3% ACF. The pore size and volume increased considerably in comparison with 3% ACF. The BET results confirmed that 3% ACF is more effective than 12% lime in terms of surface area and BET value. To better understand the effect of AC in decreasing pore volume and pore size, the BET result of 3%L-treated soil was added. Therefore, activated carbon improves the lateritic soil structure into a completely interlocking system with fewer tiny pores and prepares the situation for more reactions by raising the surface area [73].

4. Conclusions

This study evaluates lime, AC, and ACF stabilised subgrade soils through consolidation tests, UCS tests, and microstructural analyses. According to MPWD standards, the findings showed that lime and ACF enhance the performance of this lateritic soil as a subgrade in road construction. Based on the result of the experiment work, 12% lime is the lowest content of lime that should be included in the soil to enhance the strength of soil significantly because, in this study, the soil is acidic, and a high percentage of lime is needed to reach pH value 12.4. Moreover, the UCS values confirmed that 12% lime is optimum content based on Malaysian standards. Although lime content and curing age affect UCS values of lime treatment, 3% ACF has the same UCS value as 12% lime (four weeks age). In addition, the elastic module increases with increasing additives content in lime-treated and ACF-treated soil. The elastic modulus of 3% ACF and 3% lime are almost identical when comparing lime and ACF specimens. Using lime and ACF effectively enhances the consolidation coefficient in stabilised soil due to decreasing the void ratio and hydraulic conductivity by them. However, ID decreased in lime-treated soil with rising lime content and curing time, while ID increased in AC and ACF-treated soil with growing AC content. The BET results confirmed that activated carbon improves BET value significantly compared to lime. Hence, ACF treatment can improve the compression strength of lateritic soils. Still, it needs more investigation to determine the influence of ACF on other strength factors under various loading and environmental conditions.

Author Contributions

The conceptualisation, design of the work to data gathering, data analysis, manuscript writing, and review have done by contributions of S.T., N.N.N.D., F.M.J., F.M.K., A.S.A.R. and M.J.R. to the preparation of this paper. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Funding

This study was funded by Universiti Putra Malaysia under project code: GP-IPS/2021/9701400, grant type: Geran Inisiatif Putra Siswazah (GP-IPS).

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

The data used in this research can be provided by the corresponding author upon request. Because of privacy concerns, the data is not publicly available.

Acknowledgments

The authors are thankful to Universiti Putra Malaysia for their cooperation in launching this research.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare that this research presented contains no commercial or associative interests that would create a conflict of interest.

References

  1. Roshan, M.J.; Rashid, A.S.A.; Wahab, N.A.; Hezmi, M.A.; Jusoh, S.N.; Azmi, M. Stability of Railway Embankment in Saturated and Unsaturated Conditions. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2021, 1153, 012007. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  2. Roshan, M.J.; Rashid, A.S.A.; Abdul Wahab, N.; Tamassoki, S.; Jusoh, S.N.; Hezmi, M.A.; Nik Daud, N.N.; Mohd Apandi, N.; Azmi, M. Improved Methods to Prevent Railway Embankment Failure and Subgrade Degradation: A Review. Transp. Geotech. 2022, 37, 100834. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  3. Ta’negonbadi, B.; Noorzad, R. Physical and Geotechnical Long-Term Properties of Lignosulfonate-Stabilized Clay: An Experimental Investigation. Transp. Geotech. 2018, 17, 41–50. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  4. Pooni, J.; Robert, D.; Giustozzi, F.; Setunge, S.; Xie, Y.M.; Xia, J. Novel Use of Calcium Sulfoaluminate (CSA) Cement for Treating Problematic Soils. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 260, 120433. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  5. Wahab, N.A.; Rashid, A.S.A.; Roshan, M.J.; Rizal, N.H.A.; Yunus, N.Z.M.; Hezmi, M.A.; Tadza, M.Y.M. Effects of Cement on the Compaction Properties of Lateritic Soil. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2021, 1153, 012015. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  6. Billong, N.; Melo, U.C.; Louvet, F.; Njopwouo, D. Properties of Compressed Lateritic Soil Stabilized with a Burnt Clay–Lime Binder: Effect of Mixture Components. Constr. Build. Mater. 2009, 23, 2457–2460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  7. Su, L.; Zhou, L.; Zhang, X.; Ling, X. Experimental and Numerical Modeling on Liquefaction Resistance of Geotextile Reinforced Sand. Soil Dyn. Earthq. Eng. 2022, 159, 107345. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  8. Tamassoki, S.; Moayed, R.Z.; Ashkani, M.; Rahimi, H. Scale Effect on the Shear Strength of Two-Layer Soil Reinforced by Geogrid. Malays. J. Civ. Eng. 2018, 30, 113–127. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  9. Chen, R.P.; Wang, Y.W.; Ye, X.W.; Bian, X.C.; Dong, X.P. Tensile Force of Geogrids Embedded in Pile-Supported Reinforced Embankment: A Full-Scale Experimental Study. Geotext. Geomembr. 2016, 44, 157–169. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  10. Mypati, V.N.K.; Saride, S. Feasibility of Alkali-Activated Low-Calcium Fly Ash as a Binder for Deep Soil Mixing. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2022, 34, 04021410. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  11. Ahmad, A.S.; Black, J.A.; Kueh, A.B.H.; Md Noor, N. Behaviour of Weak Soils Reinforced with Soil Cement Columns Formed by the Deep Mixing Method: Rigid and Flexible Footings. Measurement 2015, 68, 262–279. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  12. Muhammed, J.J.; Jayawickrama, P.W.; Teferra, A.; Özer, M.A. Settlement of a Railway Embankment on PVD-Improved Karakore Soft Alluvial Soil. Eng. Sci. Technol. Int. J. 2020, 23, 1015–1027. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  13. Arivalagan, J.; Indraratna, B.; Rujikiatkamjorn, C.; Warwick, A. Effectiveness of a Geocomposite-PVD System in Preventing Subgrade Instability and Fluidisation under Cyclic Loading. Geotext. Geomembr. 2022, 50, 607–617. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  14. Petry, T.M.; Little, D.N. Review of Stabilization of Clays and Expansive Soils in Pavements and Lightly Loaded Structures—History, Practice, and Future. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2002, 14, 447–460. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  15. Behnood, A. Soil and Clay Stabilization with Calcium- and Non-Calcium-Based Additives: A State-of-the-Art Review of Challenges, Approaches and Techniques. Transp. Geotech. 2018, 17, 14–32. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  16. Rosone, M.; Ferrari, A.; Celauro, C. On the Hydro-Mechanical Behaviour of a Lime-Treated Embankment during Wetting and Drying Cycles. Geomech. Energy Environ. 2018, 14, 48–60. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  17. Osinubi, K.J.; Ijmdiya, T.S.; Nmadu, I. Lime Stabilization of Black Cotton Soil Using Bagasse Ash as Admixture in Advanced Materials Research; Trans Tech Publications: Schwyz, Switzerland, 2009; Volume 62–64, pp. 3–10. [Google Scholar]
  18. Hamidi, A.; Hooresfand, M. Effect of Fiber Reinforcement on Triaxial Shear Behavior of Cement Treated Sand. Geotext. Geomembr. 2013, 36, 1–9. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  19. Hejazi, S.M.; Sheikhzadeh, M.; Abtahi, S.M.; Zadhoush, A. A Simple Review of Soil Reinforcement by Using Natural and Synthetic Fibers. Constr. Build. Mater. 2012, 30, 100–116. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  20. Kumar, A.; Gupta, D. Behavior of Cement-Stabilized Fiber-Reinforced Pond Ash, Rice Husk Ash-Soil Mixtures. Geotext. Geomembr. 2016, 44, 466–474. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  21. Jamsawang, P.; Voottipruex, P.; Horpibulsuk, S. Flexural Strength Characteristics of Compacted Cement-Polypropylene Fiber Sand. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2015, 27, 04014243. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  22. Narani, S.S.; Abbaspour, M.; Mir Mohammad Hosseini, S.M.; Moghadas Nejad, F. Long-Term Dynamic Behavior of a Sandy Subgrade Reinforced by Waste Tire Textile Fibers (WTTFs). Transp. Geotech. 2020, 24, 100375. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  23. Ranjan, G.; Vasan, R.M.; Charan, H.D. Behaviour of Plastic-Fibre-Reinforced Sand. Geotext. Geomembr. 1994, 13, 555–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  24. Ramkrishnan, R.; Sruthy, M.R.; Sharma, A.; Karthik, V. Effect of Random Inclusion of Sisal Fibres on Strength Behavior and Slope Stability of Fine Grained Soils. Mater. Today Proc. 2018, 5, 25313–25322. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  25. Kravchenko, E.; Liu, J.; Krainiukov, A.; Chang, D. Dynamic Behavior of Clay Modified with Polypropylene Fiber under Freeze-Thaw Cycles. Transp. Geotech. 2019, 21, 100282. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  26. Praveen, G.V.; Kurre, P. Influence of Coir Fiber Reinforcement on Shear Strength Parameters of Cement Modified Marginal Soil Mixed with Fly Ash. Mater. Today Proc. 2020, 39, 504–507. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  27. Boz, A.; Sezer, A.; Özdemir, T.; Hızal, G.E.; Azdeniz Dolmacı, Ö. Mechanical Properties of Lime-Treated Clay Reinforced with Different Types of Randomly Distributed Fibers. Arab. J. Geosci. 2018, 11, 122. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  28. Kafodya, I.; Okonta, F. Effects of Natural Fiber Inclusions and Pre-Compression on the Strength Properties of Lime-Fly Ash Stabilised Soil. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 170, 737–746. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  29. Anggraini, V.; Asadi, A.; Syamsir, A.; Huat, B.B.K. Three Point Bending Flexural Strength of Cement Treated Tropical Marine Soil Reinforced by Lime Treated Natural Fiber. Measurement 2017, 111, 158–166. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  30. Wang, Y.; Guo, P.; Li, X.; Lin, H.; Liu, Y.; Yuan, H. Behavior of Fiber-Reinforced and Lime-Stabilized Clayey Soil in Triaxial Tests. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 900. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  31. Jairaj, C.; Prathap Kumar, M.T.; Ramesh, H.N. Effect of Addition of Lime on Coir Fiber Admixed BC Soil. Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. 2020, 5, 49. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  32. Lenoir, T.; Preteseille, M.; Ricordel, S. Contribution of the Fiber Reinforcement on the Fatigue Behavior of Two Cement-Modified Soils. Int. J. Fatigue 2016, 93, 71–81. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  33. Ghadakpour, M.; Choobbasti, A.J.; Kutanaei, S.S. Investigation of the Kenaf Fiber Hybrid Length on the Properties of the Cement-Treated Sandy Soil. Transp. Geotech. 2020, 22, 100301. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  34. Sarkar, J.K.; Wang, Q. Different Pyrolysis Process Conditions of South Asian Waste Coconut Shell and Characterization of Gas, Bio-Char, and Bio-Oil. Energies 2020, 13, 1970. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  35. Siengchum, T.; Isenberg, M.; Chuang, S.S.C. Fast Pyrolysis of Coconut Biomass—An FTIR Study. Fuel 2013, 105, 559–565. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  36. John, M.J.; Anandjiwala, R.D. Recent Developments in Chemical Modification and Characterization of Natural Fiber-Reinforced Composites. Polym. Compos. 2008, 29, 187–207. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  37. Mohanty, A.K.; Misra, M.; Drzal, L.T. Natural Fibers, Biopolymers, And Biocomposites; Mohanty, A.K., Misra, M., Drzal, L.T., Eds.; CRC Press: Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2005; ISBN 9780849317415. [Google Scholar]
  38. Tamassoki, S.; Norsyahariati, N.; Daud, N.; Jakarni, F.M.; Kusin, F.M.; Safuan, A.; Rashid, A.; Roshan, M.J. Compressive and Shear Strengths of Coir Fibre Reinforced Activated Carbon Stabilised Lateritic Soil. Sustainability 2022, 14, 9100. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  39. Al-Soudany, K.; Al-Gharbawi, A.; Al-Noori, M. Improvement of Clayey Soil Characteristics by Using Activated Carbon. In MATEC Web of Conferences, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Buildings, Construction and Environmental Engineering, BCEE3-2017, Sharm El Shiekh, Egypt, 23–25 October 2017; EDP Sciences: Paris, France, 2018; Volume 162, p. 1009. [Google Scholar]
  40. Anirudhan, T.S.; Sreekumari, S.S.; Bringle, C.D. Removal of Phenols from Water and Petroleum Industry Refinery Effluents by Activated Carbon Obtained from Coconut Coir Pith. Adsorption 2009, 15, 439–451. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  41. Furuya, E.G.; Chang, H.T.; Miura, Y.; Noll, K.E. A Fundamental Analysis of the Isotherm for the Adsorption of Phenolic Compounds on Activated Carbon. Sep. Purif. Technol. 1997, 11, 69–78. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  42. Lee, C.S.; Ong, Y.L.; Aroua, M.K.; Daud, W.M.A.W. Impregnation of Palm Shell-Based Activated Carbon with Sterically Hindered Amines for CO2 Adsorption. Chem. Eng. J. 2013, 219, 558–564. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  43. El-Shafey, E.I.; Ali, S.N.F.; Al-Busafi, S.; Al-Lawati, H.A.J. Preparation and Characterization of Surface Functionalized Activated Carbons from Date Palm Leaflets and Application for Methylene Blue Removal. J. Environ. Chem. Eng. 2016, 4, 2713–2724. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  44. AASHTO M 145-1991 R2004 Classification of Soils & Soil-Aggregate Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes FEISMO.COM Web Standards-Based Platform. Available online: https://feismo.com/doc-viewer (accessed on 10 August 2022).
  45. Mengue, E.; Mroueh, H.; Lancelot, L.; Eko, R.M. Mechanical Improvement of a Fine-Grained Lateritic Soil Treated with Cement for Use in Road Construction. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2017, 29, 4017206. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  46. Wanogho, S.; Gettinby, G.; Caddy, B. Particle-Size Distribution Analysis of Soils Using Laser Diffraction. Forensic Sci. Int. 1987, 33, 117–128. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  47. Ullah, R.; Abdullah, R.A.; Kassim, A.; Yunus, N.Z.M.; Ullah, A.; Junaid, M.; Roshan, M.J. Effectiveness of Laser Diffraction Method for Particle Size Evaluation of Residual Soil. Indian Geotech. J. 2022, 2022, 1–11. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  48. Chada, N.; Romanos, J.; Hilton, R.; Suppes, G.; Burress, J.; Pfeifer, P. Activated Carbon Monoliths for Methane Storage. In Proceedings of the APS March Meeting 2012, Boston, MA, USA, 27 February–2 March 2012; Volume 57, pp. W12–W33. [Google Scholar]
  49. British Standards Institution. British Standard Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes; British Standards Institution: Milton Keynes, UK, 1990; ISBN 9780580176920. [Google Scholar]
  50. Dhar, S.; Hussain, M. The Strength Behaviour of Lime-Stabilised Plastic Fibre-Reinforced Clayey Soil. Road Mater. Pavement Des. 2019, 20, 1757–1778. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  51. Salimi, M.; Ghorbani, A. Mechanical and Compressibility Characteristics of a Soft Clay Stabilized by Slag-Based Mixtures and Geopolymers. Appl. Clay Sci. 2020, 184, 105390. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  52. Eisazadeh, A.; Kassim, K.A.; Nur, H. Morphology and BET Surface Area of Phosphoric Acid Stabilized Tropical Soils. Eng. Geol. 2013, 154, 36–41. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  53. Cristelo, N.; Fernández-Jiménez, A.; Vieira, C.; Miranda, T.; Palomo, Á. Stabilisation of Construction and Demolition Waste with a High Fines Content Using Alkali Activated Fly Ash. Constr. Build. Mater. 2018, 170, 26–39. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  54. Mitchell, J.K.; Soga, K. Fundamentals of Soil Behavior; John Wiley & Sons: Hoboken, NY, USA, 2005; Volume 3. [Google Scholar]
  55. Rauch, A.F.; Katz, L.E.; Liljestrand, H.M. An Analysis of the Mechanisms and Efficacy of Three Liquid Chemical Soil Stabilizers; Center for Transportation Research, the University of Texas at Austin: Austin, TX, USA, 2003. [Google Scholar]
  56. Brunauer, S.; Emmett, P.H.; Teller, E. Adsorption of Gases in Multimolecular Layers. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1938, 60, 309–319. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  57. Al-Jabban, W.; Laue, J.; Knutsson, S.; Al-Ansari, N. A Comparative Evaluation of Cement and By-Product Petrit T in Soil Stabilization. Appl. Sci. 2019, 9, 5238. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  58. Al-Mukhtar, M.; Lasledj, A.; Alcover, J.-F. Behaviour and Mineralogy Changes in Lime-Treated Expansive Soil at 50 °C. Appl. Clay Sci. 2010, 50, 199–203. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  59. Chen, H.; Wang, Q. The Behaviour of Organic Matter in the Process of Soft Soil Stabilization Using Cement. Bull. Eng. Geol. Environ. 2006, 65, 445–448. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  60. Jairaj, C.; Prathap Kumar, M.T.; Raghunandan, M.E. Compaction Characteristics and Strength of BC Soil Reinforced with Untreated and Treated Coir Fibers. Innov. Infrastruct. Solut. 2018, 3, 21. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  61. Crane, R.E.; Cassidy, D.P.; Srivastava, V.J. Activated Carbon Preconditioning to Reduce Contaminant Leaching in Cement-Based Stabilization of Soils. J. Environ. Eng. 2014, 140, 04014032. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  62. Chaple, P.M.; Dhatrak, A.I. Performance of Coir Fiber Reinforced Clayey Soil. Int. J. Eng. Sci. 2013, 2, 54–64. [Google Scholar]
  63. Bhurtel, A.; Eisazadeh, A. Strength and Durability of Bottom Ash and Lime Stabilized Bangkok Clay. KSCE J. Civ. Eng. 2020, 24, 404–411. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  64. Sobhan, K. Improving the Tensile Strength and Toughness of a Soil-Cement-Fly Ash Pavement Subgrade with Recycled HDPE Strips. In Proceedings of the GeoCongress 2008: Geosustainability and Geohazard Mitigation, New Orleans, LA, USA, 9–12 March 2008; pp. 1065–1072. [Google Scholar]
  65. Anggraini, V.; Asadi, A.; Huat, B.B.K.; Nahazanan, H. Effects of Coir Fibers on Tensile and Compressive Strength of Lime Treated Soft Soil. Measurement 2015, 59, 372–381. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  66. Park, S.-S. Unconfined Compressive Strength and Ductility of Fiber-Reinforced Cemented Sand. Constr. Build. Mater. 2011, 25, 1134–1138. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  67. Saberian, M.; Jahandari, S.; Li, J.; Zivari, F. Effect of Curing, Capillary Action, and Groundwater Level Increment on Geotechnical Properties of Lime Concrete: Experimental and Prediction Studies. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 2017, 9, 638–647. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  68. Ateş, A. Mechanical Properties of Sandy Soils Reinforced with Cement and Randomly Distributed Glass Fibers (GRC). Compos. Part B Eng. 2016, 96, 295–304. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  69. Abdi, M.R.; Ghalandarzadeh, A.; Chafi, L.S. An Investigation into the Effects of Lime on Compressive and Shear Strength Characteristics of Fiber-Reinforced Clays. J. Rock Mech. Geotech. Eng. 2021, 13, 885–898. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  70. Rashid, A.S.A.; Kalatehjari, R.; Noor, N.M.; Yaacob, H.; Moayedi, H.; Sing, L.K. Relationship between Liquidity Index and Stabilized Strength of Local Subgrade Materials in a Tropical Area. Measurement 2014, 55, 231–237. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  71. Locat, J.; Tremblay, H.; Leroueil, S. Mechanical and Hydraulic Behaviour of a Soft Inorganic Clay Treated with Lime. Can. Geotech. J. 1996, 33, 654–669. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  72. Makki-Szymkiewicz, L.; Hibouche, A.; Taibi, S.; Herrier, G.; Lesueur, D.; Fleureau, J.M. Evolution of the Properties of Lime-Treated Silty Soil in a Small Experimental Embankment. Eng. Geol. 2015, 191, 8–22. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  73. Dillon, E.C., Jr.; Wilton, J.H.; Barlow, J.C.; Watson, W.A. Large Surface Area Activated Charcoal and the Inhibition of Aspirin Absorption. Ann. Emerg. Med. 1989, 18, 547–552. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  74. Fattah, M.Y.; Al-Saidi, A.A.; Jaber, M.M. Consolidation Properties of Compacted Soft Soil Stabilized with Lime-Silica Fume Mix. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 2014, 21, 756. [Google Scholar]
  75. Mengue, E.; Mroueh, H.; Lancelot, L.; Medjo Eko, R. Physicochemical and Consolidation Properties of Compacted Lateritic Soil Treated with Cement. Soils Found. 2017, 57, 60–79. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  76. Akula, P.; Hariharan, N.; Little, D.N.; Lesueur, D.; Herrier, G. Evaluating the Long-Term Durability of Lime Treatment in Hydraulic Structures: Case Study on the Friant-Kern Canal. Transp. Res. Rec. 2020, 2674, 431–443. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  77. Shen, S.L.; Wang, Z.F.; Horpibulsuk, S.; Kim, Y.H. Jet Grouting with a Newly Developed Technology: The Twin-Jet Method. Eng. Geol. 2013, 152, 87–95. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  78. Lav, A.H.; Lav, M.A. Microstructural Development of Stabilized Fly Ash as Pavement Base Material. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2000, 12, 157–163. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  79. Wahab, N.A.; Roshan, M.J.; Rashid, A.S.A.; Hezmi, M.A.; Jusoh, S.N.; Nik Norsyahariati, N.D.; Tamassoki, S. Strength and Durability of Cement-Treated Lateritic Soil. Sustainability 2021, 13, 6430. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  80. Athanasopoulou, A. The Role of Curing Period on the Engineering Characteristics of a Cement-Stabilized Soil. Rom. J. Transp. Infrastruct. 2016, 5, 38–52. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  81. Cheng, L.; Cord-Ruwisch, R. Upscaling Effects of Soil Improvement by Microbially Induced Calcite Precipitation by Surface Percolation. Geomicrobiol. J. 2014, 31, 396–406. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
  82. Choi, S.G.; Chang, I.; Lee, M.; Lee, J.H.; Han, J.T.; Kwon, T.H. Review on Geotechnical Engineering Properties of Sands Treated by Microbially Induced Calcium Carbonate Precipitation (MICP) and Biopolymers. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020, 246, 118415. [Google Scholar] [CrossRef]
Applsci 12 08279 g001 550
Figure 1. Particle size distribution of lime, AC, and soil.
Figure 1. Particle size distribution of lime, AC, and soil.
Applsci 12 08279 g001
Applsci 12 08279 g002 550
Figure 2. Image of (a) soil, (b) lime, (c) activated carbon, (d) coir fibre.
Figure 2. Image of (a) soil, (b) lime, (c) activated carbon, (d) coir fibre.
Applsci 12 08279 g002
Applsci 12 08279 g003 550
Figure 3. Variation in pH value after adding the various percentage of AC and lime.
Figure 3. Variation in pH value after adding the various percentage of AC and lime.
Applsci 12 08279 g003
Applsci 12 08279 g004 550
Figure 4. Failure patterns of UCS test: (a) lateritic soil, (b) AC-treated soil, and (c) lime-treated soil.
Figure 4. Failure patterns of UCS test: (a) lateritic soil, (b) AC-treated soil, and (c) lime-treated soil.
Applsci 12 08279 g004
Applsci 12 08279 g005 550
Figure 5. The compressive strength value of AC- and ACF-treated soil.
Figure 5. The compressive strength value of AC- and ACF-treated soil.
Applsci 12 08279 g005
Applsci 12 08279 g006 550
Figure 6. The compressive strength value for different lime contents.
Figure 6. The compressive strength value for different lime contents.
Applsci 12 08279 g006
Applsci 12 08279 g007 550
Figure 7. The compressive strength value for different lime and AC contents.
Figure 7. The compressive strength value for different lime and AC contents.
Applsci 12 08279 g007
Applsci 12 08279 g008 550
Figure 8. Deformability index (ID) and elastic modulus (E50) of lateritic soil and treated soil.
Figure 8. Deformability index (ID) and elastic modulus (E50) of lateritic soil and treated soil.
Applsci 12 08279 g008
Applsci 12 08279 g009 550
Figure 9. Compressibility curves (e − log P).
Figure 9. Compressibility curves (e − log P).
Applsci 12 08279 g009
Applsci 12 08279 g010 550
Figure 10. Consolidation coefficient.
Figure 10. Consolidation coefficient.
Applsci 12 08279 g010
Applsci 12 08279 g011 550
Figure 11. Permeability coefficient.
Figure 11. Permeability coefficient.
Applsci 12 08279 g011
Applsci 12 08279 g012a 550Applsci 12 08279 g012b 550
Figure 12. FESEM images of (a) lateritic soil, (b) AC specimen, and (c) lime specimen.
Figure 12. FESEM images of (a) lateritic soil, (b) AC specimen, and (c) lime specimen.
Applsci 12 08279 g012aApplsci 12 08279 g012b
Applsci 12 08279 g013 550
Figure 13. Pore volume, surface area, and pore size.
Figure 13. Pore volume, surface area, and pore size.
Applsci 12 08279 g013
Table
Table 1. Natural fibre and additives investigated in some previous research.
Table 1. Natural fibre and additives investigated in some previous research.
TestSoilStabilising
Admixture		Fibre ReinforcingDays
Curing		Ref.
UCS and DSTSC
(Marginal soil)		Cement and Fly Ashrandomly distributing 2% coir fibre3[26]
USCClay
(A kaolin type)		Lime0.75% basalt90[27]
UCSCLLime and fly ash0.5% sisal fibre7[28]
TPB, TSTmarine clay soilLime and cement1% coconut fibre28[29]
UUTHefei clayey soilLime0.4 wheat straw28[30]
UCSCHLime0.5% coir fibre7[31]
TPB, cyclic loadings,A-2-6
A-7-5		Cement0.15% hemp fibre7[32]
UCS, STS,SPCementKenaf fibre28[33]
Direct shear test (DST), indirect tensile strength (ITS), unconsolidated–undrained triaxial (UUT), unconfined compressive strength (UCS), three-point bending (TPB), splitting tensile strength (STS).
Table
Table 2. Chemical composition of soil and additives.
Table 2. Chemical composition of soil and additives.
Composition(%) by Weight
SoilActivated CarbonLime
Fe2O357.57%11.27-
SiO220.85%--
Al2O319.507--
K2O1.72%17.680.30
MnO0.15%2.57-
Cr2O30.14%--
As2O30.05%--
CaO-39.7798.85
P2O5-16.62-
SO3-7.830.80
ZnO-3.47-
CuO-0.62-
SrO-0.180.05
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Share and Cite

MDPI and ACS Style

Tamassoki, S.; Nik Daud, N.N.; Jakarni, F.M.; Mohd Kusin, F.; Rashid, A.S.A.; Roshan, M.J. Performance Evaluation of Lateritic Subgrade Soil Treated with Lime and Coir Fibre-Activated Carbon. Appl. Sci. 2022, 12, 8279. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12168279

AMA Style

Tamassoki S, Nik Daud NN, Jakarni FM, Mohd Kusin F, Rashid ASA, Roshan MJ. Performance Evaluation of Lateritic Subgrade Soil Treated with Lime and Coir Fibre-Activated Carbon. Applied Sciences. 2022; 12(16):8279. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12168279

Chicago/Turabian Style

Tamassoki, Sakina, Nik Norsyahariati Nik Daud, Fauzan Mohd Jakarni, Faradiella Mohd Kusin, Ahmad Safuan A. Rashid, and Mohammad Jawed Roshan. 2022. "Performance Evaluation of Lateritic Subgrade Soil Treated with Lime and Coir Fibre-Activated Carbon" Applied Sciences 12, no. 16: 8279. https://doi.org/10.3390/app12168279

Note that from the first issue of 2016, this journal uses article numbers instead of page numbers. See further details here.

Article Metrics

Back to TopTop